這本文法書是為我仰光學院的學生們寫的,為了促進他們對巴利語的研習,更容易深入研究。據我所知,並沒有任何巴利語的文法書,適合沒有梵語基礎的學生的需求。Muller、Frankfurter 、Minayef的文法書, 它們是為稍有涉獵過梵語的人寫的,把他們的書讓沒有梵語基礎的學生讀,只是徒增困惑,完全沒有效益。再者,這些文法書並不十分完整,只是名詞和動詞的詞形變化組成。Mr

591. 形容詞或者分詞(其具形容詞的性質),當它不跟所修飾的名詞複合,其性、數、格必須和名詞一致。

592. 關係代名詞與其先行詞性、數、格必須一致。

(1) 關係詞可被單獨使用,不需名詞,如: yo janati so imaj ganhatu (任何人懂,就讓他拿去。he who knows let him take this.)注意: 以上指示代名詞“so”被用作關連詞(correlative)引導主要子句。yo是關係代名詞,引導關係子句。

(2) 使用關係代名詞(指示代名詞)而不用先前使用過的名詞: ahaj ekaj upayaj janami, yena amhe ganhituj no sakkissati [我有個權宜之計,透過其(計)他將不能夠抓住我們。I know an expedient by which he will not able to seize us.]

(3) 帶有表達過的名詞: yassa purisassa buddhi hoti so mahaddhano ti vuccati (有覺慧的人,被稱為有大財富。to whom there is wisdom, he is called very wealthy)

(4) 注意: 關係子句要放在前;有時為了強調子句中含關連詞要放在前: na so pitayena putto na sikkhapiyati‖ (沒有父親的孩子不會令自己學習he is no father by whom the son is not made to learn.)

593. “karaka(格位語法,如對格為kamma karaka)”這個術語表達名詞與動詞間的關係,這才是正確的支配 (government,因為其決定其它相關、後接字詞的文法形式);因此任何字,若其與動詞不相關就不能稱”karaka”,因此屬格和呼格就不能被視為是個”karaka” (屬格是名詞與名詞的關係),要稱為”akaraka (非格位語法,non-cases) “。

594. 主格用法跟英語非常像,它是動詞的主詞。動詞在人稱及單、複數上, 必須與主詞一致(見590)。

(i) 主格被用作同位語(apposition),如: malliko kosalaraja (Mallika指茉莉、勝鬘夫人,其夫為憍薩羅國王波斯匿。malliko 指波斯匿王,與kosalaraja憍薩羅國王為同位語。)

(ii) 書名標題裡獨立使用主格,不需採適當的語尾變化,如: mahajanakajataka (《大闍那伽王本生經》,“The Birth Story of Mahajanaka”)

595. 屬格的真正力道有如英語的 –of 和 –′s表達“具有、...的”。

(i)因此,屬格主要是被用來指稱擁有,如: suvannassa rasi (一堆的金子, a heap of gold); rukkhassa sakha (樹的枝幹, the branch of the tree);

(ii)在像上述例子中,屬格經常與它所修飾的名詞複合成一字,如: suvannarasi;

(iii)它指稱全體中的一部分;這被叫“部分屬格(partitive genitive)”: brahmanaj so pandito (在婆羅門中他是聰慧的,he is clever among brahmins); sabbayodhanaj atisuro (在所有武士中最勇敢的, the bravest of all warriors); tumhakaj pana ekena (但是你們中一個也沒有, but even not one of you.)

(iv)屬格也跟表達差別、相等、不相等的字彙一起使用,如: tassa antaraj na passijsu [他們沒看其差異,they did not see the (its) difference]; sadiso pitu [與(他的)父親相同,the same as (his) father]; tulyo pitu (等同於他的父親,equal to his father.)註: 在這些例子裡,屬格也可以用從格: sadiso pitara。

(v)字詞表達“親愛”或與其相反,取屬格: sa brahmanassa manapa[她被該婆羅門所喜愛, she (was) dear to the brahmin. Manapa【adj.】令人喜愛的]

(vi)同樣地,字詞指稱“榮譽,尊敬”等取屬格: gamassa pujito (PPP), 被該村莊供奉honoured of the village; rabbo manito [被國王所崇敬,revered by (of) the king]

註: 在這些例中, 屬格也可以用具格: gamena pujito

(vii)字詞表達“技能,精通...等”或與其相反,後接屬格: kusala naccagītassa (擅長跳舞和唱歌, clever in dancing and singing)

(viii)它與表達“地處,時間,距離”的字詞連用: amhakaj buddhassa pubbe (在我們的佛陀之前, before our Buddha); gamassa avidure (離村莊不遠, not far from the village; Avidura【n.】附近。); upari tesaj (在他們之上, above them)

(ix)對某事物起信或良好地處置: budhassa pasanno (他淨信佛, he has faith in the Buddha) 註: 這裡也可以使用處格: buddhe pasanno

(x)它也用於表達字詞含下列意義: 記憶、哀思,憐憫,想要,給予或分攤、分配,尊敬,清潔,充滿,懼怕...等: matussa sarati [他憶起(哀悼)他的母親he remembers his mother (with sorrow)]; na tesaj koci sarati (沒有人記得他們, nobody remembers them); telassa davati (他布施油, he gives oil); purati balo papassa (那個傻瓜充滿邪惡, the fool is full of evil;Pureti (pur + e) 填充, 實踐, 完成。); sabbe tasanti dandassa (所有人懼怕處罰, all fear punishment; Tasati (tas + a) 戰慄,驚嚇。)在這例子裡可用對格: telaj davati.註: 表懼怕的字詞也接用從格: kin nu kho ahaj sunakha bhayami? (為什麼我要怕狗？Why should I fear the dogs?)

(xi)若屬格有個分詞需與其一致,則稱為“屬格獨立結構。”它通常指稱一些服侍的情境: tassa bhattaj bhuttassa udakaj aharanti (當他用完飯,他們為他拿水。 when he had finished his meal they fetched him water. Bhubjati (bhuj + m-a), 吃【PPP】bhutta。)

(xii)屬格的其它關係不會出現困難, 因為英語有精確平行用法。
596. 從以上註中可見: 屬格經常被使用,而不用對格,從格,具格和處格。它也被當作副詞使用,如kissa(為什麼)？注意: 當屬格相依於動詞時,是因為必須用屬格,不能用其它格位,如: matussa sarati. (他哀悼其母)
￭ 3. 為格 (The Dative)

597. 事物給予人或者被做、為誰做(表目的或利益對象),使用為格。因此,對格為及物動詞的直接受詞,為格則用於間接受詞。

(i) 為格表達的關係,即英語中常用“to, for”來指稱的字彙,如: bhikkhussa civaraj deti (他供養比丘一套袈裟, he gives a robe to the priest); yuddhaya paccugga- cchami (我為作戰離去, I will set out for battle. )

(ii) 為格接用動詞表示稱揚或者責備,憤怒,相信,不相信,同意,嫉妒,快樂或者不高興,傷害,利益,贊成,寬恕,問候,祝福,憎恨,虐待,隱藏,虔敬,攜帶。例: － Buddhassa silaghate (pres/mid/3^rd/sg)(他讚歎佛陀, he praises the Buddha－Silaghati (silagh + a)頌楊。); － yadi’haj tassa kuppeyya(如果我應對他生氣, if I should be angry with him); － duhayati disanaj ogho (洪水使國家受損傷, the flood has injured the country); － tuyhaj saddahami (我對你信任, I believe thee); － svagataj te (善來,大德！歡迎您！Hail to thee!) － sotthi tuyhaj hotu(祝福您, Fare thee well!) － khama me (原諒我﹗Forgive me!) － mayhaj sapate (Mid/3^rd/sg)(他對我詛咒he reviles me－Sapati (sap + a), 詛罵); － tassa sampaticchi (他同意它, he assented to it); － tassa atītaj ahari (他告訴他一個故事, he told him a story); － deva pi tesaj pihayanti (即使天人們想要他們,嫉妒他們, even the gods desire them, envy them);－ samanassa rocate saccaj: 諦實使(那)沙門歡喜truth pleases a monk

(iii) 為格通常用與動詞”hoti “連用,表達擁有: putta me n’atthi (我沒有兒子, I have no sons.) 註: 當動詞” hoti”與為格連用,表示擁有一般用單數型,像上例被擁有的是複數。

(iv) 單字, alaj,意義為“夠了！好了！適合！”其接用為格:－alaj kukkuccaya (懷疑夠了！enough of doubt!)－alaj mallo mallassa (力士和力士配, A warrior is match for a warrior.)

(v) 字彙attha (目標,object); hita (利益benefit,祝福blessing);以及sukha (幸福、快樂happiness),用為格分別帶有以下意義: 為了...;為了...利益; 為了...的快樂;且它接用屬格: －ropanassa atthaya,或作, ropanatthaya (為了種植, for the purpose of sowing);－devamanussanaj hitaya (為了利益人天, for the benefit of gods and men); － tassa sukhaya (為了他的幸福快樂, for his hapiness)

(vi) 為格可指稱目的,再接用屬格: darassa bharanaya (為了贍養妻子,for the purpose of maintaining a wife) 註: 從這例子可見到－為格語尾為-aya,含有不定體的意味。

(vii) 動詞mabbati(認爲)用為格,其暗示著輕蔑: － kalivgarassa tuyhaj mabbe(pres /mid /1sg) (我認為你是廢物, I consider thee as chaff; kalivgara朽木,穀殼; mabbe有字典作【ind.】我認為)－ jīvitaj tinaya na mabbe [我做不認為生命只像草(那麼多), I do not consider life (so much) as grass; Tina,【n.】草。]

(viii) 動作導向之處,有時放為格: －appo saggaya gacchati [少數去天堂, (only) the few go to heaven; Sagga【m.】快樂的地方,天堂。] ;－nirayaya upakaddhati [(他下到地獄, drags down to hell); Upakaddhati (upa + kaddh + a), 拖近。]; －so maj udakaya neti (他引導我到水邊, he takes me to the water.)

(ix) 為格經常被用來取代受格和處格。
￭ 4. 對格 (Accusative)

598. (i)及物動詞一般接用受格: rathaj karoti (他製造一部車, he makes a carriage); aharo balaj janeti (食品產生力量, food produces strength)

(ii) 所有表移動的動詞接用對格: nagaraj gacchati(他進城去, he goes to town); bhagavantaj upasavkamitva (往詣佛陀之後, having approached the Blessed One)

(iii) 動詞表擇名、召喚、指派、質問、令做、知、考量...等要用雙對格,一作直接受詞,另一作間接受詞: puriso bharaj gamaj vahati (男子攜帶荷擔到村落, the man carries the load to the village; Vahati (vah + a), 負擔,攜帶); purisaj gacchantaj passati (他看見一個男人正在走, he sees the man going)。以上例中, gamaj 和gacchantaj 是間接受詞。

(iv) 同樣的,使役動詞接雙受格: － puriso purisaj gamaj gamayati [他派人去村莊,the man causes the man to go to the village; Gameti (gam + e)令去,派去]; － acariyo sisaj dhammaj patheti (阿闍梨令弟子閱讀教法, the preceptor causes the disciple to read the Doctrine; Pathati (path+ a), 讀,背誦。patha[m.]讀誦)註: 在這樣的例子中,可以不用間接受詞而用具格: － samiko dasena (或作dasaj/acc.) khajjaj khadapeti. (主人令奴隸去吃食物, The master causes the slave to eat the food); － purisena (或作purisaj) kammaj kareti (他派人做工作, he causes the man to do the work)

(v) 當字根: √vas (生活,to live); √tha (立, to stand); √si (躺, to lie down); √pad(走、前進to go step) ; √vis (進入to enter) , 前若有動詞接頭詞: anu, upa, abhi, adhi, a, ni等要接對格:－ gamaj upavasati (他住在村莊附近, he lives near the village); － nagaraj adhivasanti (他們居住在城鎮, they dwell in the town); －mabcaj/m./acc abhinsīdeyya (他應該坐在小床上; he ought to sit on the cot ); －sakkassa sahabyataj upapajjati (她去帝釋的忉利天, she went to Sakka’s heaven)

(vi) 用對格於處格: －nadij/acc pivati  nadiyaj/loc. pivati (他喝河水, he drinks in the river); －gamaj/acc. carati  game/loc. carati (他遊方於村莊, he roams in the village.)

(vii) 以下不變化詞接對格: abhito(近,出現,在其兩邊); dhi, dhī (表示嫌惡,震驚等－呸！真可恥！;表示悲痛、懊惱、不幸－唉！); dhi-r-atthu(見前), 唉！可惜啊! antara(之間、在途中); parito(在周圍、到處、每邊); anu(與...並列、在旁、較差的); pati(朝、向,為了,近); pari(在周遭; upa較差的); antarena(除了,沒有); abhi(前)。－abhito gamaj vasati (他住在村莊附近, he lives near the village); － dhī brahmanassa hantaraj (襲擊婆羅門的人真可恥﹗woe to whom strikes a brahmin!)－ dhī-ratthu maj putikayaj (對我那不淨的身體感到羞恥！shame on that foul body of mine!)－ upayaj antarena (沒有謀略, without expedient); － maj antarena (除了我之外, excepting me); － antara ca rajagahaj(在往王舍城途中, and on the way to Rajagaha); －parito nagaraj (在城鎮周遭, around the city); － sadhu devadatto mataraj anu (善栽！提婆達多侍母至孝。Devadatta is kind to his mother); － anu sariputtaj (不如舍利弗,inferior to Sariputta); － pabbattaj anu (依傍著山, by the side of the mountain); － sadhu devadatto mataraj pati (善哉, 提婆達多待母周到, Devadatta is kind to his mother);－ nadij nerabjaraj pati (近於尼連禪河, near the river Nerabjara); － upa sariputtaj (不如舍利弗, inferior to Sariputta)。

(viii) 表時間、期間要用對格: － divasaj (整天, the whole day); － taj khanaj (當時, at that moment; Khana【m.】剎那);－ ekaj samayaj (一時,從前once upon a time)

(ix) 序數詞用對格指稱第幾次” number of times”: － dutiyaj (第二次, for the second time); － tatiyaj (第三次, for the 3^rd time)

(x) 對格也表達距離: yojanaj gacchati (他走了一由尋, he goes one league.)

(xi) 對格經常副詞作使用:－ khippaj gacchati (他快快地去,he goes quickly); － hatthanillehakaj bhubjati (他舔著手吃東西, he eats “licking his hands. Nillehaka,【adj.】舔,舔者。)註: 此稱為副詞性對格(Adverbial Accusative)。

599.句法:(i)表達動作的作者,或執行動作所使用的工具要用具格:－ cakkhuna rupaj passati [他(人)以眼見色, (one) sees forms with the eye]; － hatthena kammaj karoti [他(人)以手做工(one) does work with the hands]; － dasena kato (由奴隸所完成, done by the slave.)

(ii)表達原因或理由:因此具格可譯為透過、因為、由於:－ rukkho vatena onamati [由於風, 樹彎了。the tree bends down because of the wind; Onamati (ava + nam + a)彎下]; － kammuna vasalo hoti [由於他的工作,他是個賤民。he is a pariah by reason of his work; Vasala,【m.】賤民]

(iii)前往的交通工具用具格: －yanena gacchati (他搭車前往, he goes in a cart); －vimanena gacchijsu [他們乘天宮而去they went in a flying mansion, Vimana【n.】天宮。]; －hatthina upasavkamati (騎象往詣, he approached on his elephant)

(iv)買賣東西的價格用具格:－ kahapanena no detha/Imp./2pl [請你們以一迦利沙那,賣給我們! give it to us for a kahapana (kahapana 迦利沙那,古印度一小的貨幣單位)] ; － satasahassena kinitva (以十萬錢買了,having bought it for 100,000)

(v)表達方向、路線,或者是其所經由的道路用具格表達:－ ta saladvarena gacchanti (她們經由廳門而去, they went by the gate of the hall); － kena maggena so gato, [他走哪條路去? (by) which way did he go?]

(vi)用來指稱體虛或殘障缺陷,其肢體器官要用具格: －akkhina so kano [他瞎了一隻眼, he is blind of one eye, Kana, adj./m.瞎一眼]; －hatthena kuni (有一手殘障, having a crooked hand. Kuni/m. 跛)

(vii)字彙表達: 出生、血統、起源、產地、性質要用具格: － jatiya khattiyo buddho (佛陀是剎地利種姓, Buddha is a ksatriya by birth) － pakatiya bhaddako [天生的幸運,good by nature. Pakati, 【f.】最初的形式,天生。Bhadda【adj.】幸運的,善的。~ka, 【m./n.】幸運的。]

(viii)表達時間: － divasena patto[一日間到達, arrived in one day,Divasa【m】日子。]－ekena masena nagaraj gacchi (他一個月前進城了, he went to the city in a month.)

(ix)也使用於時間,在那時候: tena samayena (當時, at that time...)

(x)表達一起的伴,且通常要與不變化詞saha或saddhij (與、俱): －nisīdi bhagava saddhij bhikkhusavghena (佛陀與比丘僧眾共同坐, the Blessed One sat together with the assembly of the monks.)

(xi)巴利表達事物“對...有什麼用途、利益”等用具格,人則用為格:－ kin te jatahi dummedha (愚癡!結髮對你有何利益?what good to thee, O fool, by matted hair? )－ kin nu me buddhena (為什麼我要在意佛陀? What do I care for a Buddha?)

(xii)單字attho(想要,需要),想要的標的物用具格,人則用為格:－manina me attho (我想要一顆牟尼寶珠, I want a jewel.)

(xiii)單字alaj (夠了)亦接用具格: －alaj idha vasena (在這裡住夠了,enough of living here) －alaj buddhena (佛陀對我是足夠的,Buddha is sufficient for me.)

(xiv)指稱”分離”的字彙句法一般習慣上用具格: － piyehi vippayogo dukkho (愛別離苦, separation from those we love is painful. Vippayoga【m.】分離。 )

(xv)不變化詞: saha, saddhij, samaj (俱); vina(沒有,除了)接用具格: [vinadosena (沒有過失, without fault; Dosa【m.】過失、煩惱。)

註: saha,有時表示”平等”: puttena saha dhanava pita (兒子像父親一樣富有)

(xvi)動詞意思為”運送,帶,拿”等等,攜帶的位置(部位)用具格: － sīsena頭頂 darukalapaj ucchavgena pannam adaya [她頭頂木柴,腰後繫取綠葉, taking a bunch of firewood on her head and greens at her hips] sīsena頭,Ucchavga,【m.】膝蓋,腰臀部; panna樹葉; ]

(xvii)具格經常是作副詞使用(見前。)

(xviii)具格也經常接許多介系詞。

600 (i)從格的主要意義表示”從” ;也就是說,它表達分離的概念。它也表達其它關係, 多多少少看得出是分離。

(ii)分離: gama apenti [他們離開村莊, they left the village; Apeti (apa + i + a)走開]－ so assa patati (他從馬上落下, he fell from the horse.)

(iii)從... 方向: avīcito upari (阿鼻、無間地獄之上,above the Avici Hell); －uddhaj padatala (腳板以上, above the sole of the foot. Tala【n.】平面,手掌或腳掌; padatala (abl.)。)

(iv)執行動作的地點用從格。根據本地文法家,這樣的格位用法,有時要理解成連續體省略掉了。不過學生們會注意到,這類表達模式,在英語有精確的平行用法: pasada oloketi (他從宮殿看, he looks from the palace),他們說相當於: pasadaj abhiruhitva pasada oloketi (攀登上宮殿後,他從宮殿看, having ascended the palace he looks from the palace.)

(v)度量長度、寬度或者距離要用從格: － dīghaso navavidatthiyo (長九指距,nine spans long; Vidatthi【f.】一指距) ; －yojanaj ayamato [長度距離一由尋, a league in length; Ayama, 【m.】 長度]。－ yojanaj vittharato [寬度距離一由尋, a league in breadth.]註: 在這些字例中可用具格: yojanaj ayamena, yojanaj vittharena.

(vi)看守保護或避開人、動物用從格:－ yavehi gavo rakkhati (他看守牛,離於大麥, he keeps the cows off the barley; Yava【m.】大麥。);－ tandula kake vareti (他阻隔烏鴉,離於米, he wards off the crows from the rice. Tandula【n.】米。Vareti (var + e)避免,阻隔。)

(vii)與字意為躲藏、隱藏動詞連用,要躲避的對象、人用從格: upajjhaya antaradhayati sisso (學生躲著他的老師, the pupil hides himself from his preceptor. upajjha【m.】宗教導師,戒師。Antaradhayati (antara + dhe + a)消失) 註: 這樣的表達模式,可用屬格: antaradhayissami samanassa gotamasssa [我將躲著沙門瞿曇, I will hide myself from the samana Gotama.]

(viii)動詞 “antaradhayati”意為: 不見、消失,其消失不見的地點用處格: jetavane antaradhayitva/gerd. (在祇園精舍消失, having disappeared from the Jetavana Monastery.)

(ix)但是,當所論及的是自然現象,則要用主格: andhakaro antaradhayati (黑暗消失, darkness disappears.)

(x)動詞意為: “戒除,避免,釋放,懼怕,痛恨”也接從格:－ papadhammmato viramati (他戒離於惡法, he refrains from sin; Viramati (vi + ram + a)自制,停止); － so parimuccati jatiya [他解脫生(死)he is released from existence];－ corehi bhayami (我駭怕盜賊們, I am afraid of thieves.)

(xi)從格也表達”動機、理由、原因”,可以翻譯為:為了,因為,由於,透過...等。 － vacaya marati (他死於他的言論, he died on account of his speech) － sīlato naj pasajsanti (他們讚嘆他的戒行, they praise him for his virtue.)註: 這些例子,也可以用具格: sīlena pasajsanti.

(xii)用於表達接近:－gama samīpaj (近於村, near the village. Samipa,【adj.】近)註: 上例也可用屬格。

(xiii)動詞意為: “被生出,起源於”等,接用從格: －cora jayati bhayaj (從盜賊恐懼生起,from a thief fear arises.)

(xiv)以下不變化詞接從格: araka (離,遠): araka tehi bhagava (世尊遠離他們, far from them is the Blessed One); upari (在上面,上方): upari pabbata (在山上方, over the mountain); pati (反對,替代,回餽); rite (除之外, 沒有); abbatra, vina (沒有, 除之外); nana (不同, 離開); puthu 母音前作puthag (分別地,沒有,除之外); a (直到); yava (直到); saha (俱): － buddhasma pati sariputto (舍利弗替代佛陀, Sariputta takes the place of the Buddha); －rite saddhamma (無真實的教義, without the true Doctrine)

(xv)應當注意: 從格經常被用以取代具格,對格或屬格,例如: vinasaddhamma, 或 vina saddhammaj或vina saddhammena.

601(i)表事物、人或者動作發生、執行的位置、地方;英語以”in, on, upon, at”表示。 － kate nisīdati puriso (男子坐在墊席上, the man is sitting on the mat); －thaliyaj odanaj pacati (他在一只鍋裡煮食; he cooks the food in a pot. thali【f.】碟,鍋)

(ii)處格顯示動作的”原因、動機”: －dīpīcammesu habbante(豹因皮被殺, the panther is killed for its skin; Dipi, dipika【m.】豹。Camma【n.】獸皮,皮革。);－ kubjaro dantesu habbate(象因長牙被殺, the elephant is killed for his tusks. Kunjara【m.】象。)

(iii)指稱動作進行的時間: sayanhasamaye agato(他傍晚到, he came in the evening. Sayanha【m.】傍晚。~samaya【m.】黃昏。)

(iv)事物或人於同類群體中最為卓越,以及形容詞的最高級,需使用處格或屬格, 名詞涉及最為卓越、最高級的表達要用處格: － manussesu khattiyo suratamo(人中剎地利最為英勇, the ksatriya is the most valiant of men) 亦作 manussanaj khattiyo suratamo; － kanha gavisu sampannakhīratama (牛群中黑者乳汁最多, of cows, the black one abounds most in milk)亦作kanha gavinaj sampannakhīratama. (Kanha,【adj.】黑; Sampajjati (sam + pad + ya)成功,發生,變成。【PPP】~panna已具有。Khira【n.】奶,乳。)

(v)下列字彙接用處格以及屬格: samī (主人, an owner, master); issaro (王king,主人lord); adhipati (君主, chief) ; dayado (繼承人, an heir); patibhu (代替者substitute, 保證surety); pasuto (子孫offspring,孩子child); kusalo (聰明clever,專家expert);－ gonesu samī或gonanaj samī (牛主, an owner of oxen)

(vi)字彙顯示“愉快,使滿足,渴望”接用處格以及具格: –banasmij ussuko (渴望智慧, eager for wisdom; Ussuka【adj.】熱心的)亦作banena ussako; －banasmij pasīdito/PPP (於智慧處喜樂, contented with wisdom; Pasidati (pa + sad + a)被取悅),亦作banena pasīdito

(vii)字彙顯示“尊敬、愛、樂、禮敬、帶、抓、擊、輕微貼觸的、喜歡、崇拜”接用處格: －papasmij ramati mano (心樂於惡, the mind delights in evil; － bhikkhusu abhivadenti(他們向比丘們問訊,they salute the monks); －pade gahetva papate khipati (抓住他的腳後把他投入懸崖, took him by the feet and threw him in the precipice; papata : [m.]懸崖; Khipati (khip + a)投,丟出); － purisaj sīse paharati (他打那個人的頭, struck the man on the head.)

(viii)處格有時顯示文法上主詞不考慮、體諒到其他的事物或人: rudantasmij darake pabbaji (儘管幼兒們哭泣,他離世出家, he left the world in spite of his son weeping.)也可用屬格: rudantassa arakassa pabbaji (見處格和屬格獨立結構)。

(ix)處格與” upa”或” adhi”連用,指稱較好或者較差: － upa khariyaj dono [一陀那（約1加侖）少於一佉梨（重）, a dona is inferior to a khari]; － adhi brahmadatte pabcala (般闍羅國是在梵德的統治下, the Pancalas are under Brahmadatta’s supremacy); －adhi devesu buddho (佛陀在諸天之上, the Buddha is above the gods.)

(x)用於指稱”接近”: － nadiyaj sassaj (在河附近的穀物, corn near the river); － tassa pannasalaya hatthimaggo hoti (他的草蘆旁為象道, near his leaf hut there is an elephant-track.)

(xi)處格獨立結構: 處格跟與相同格位的分詞合用(見: 獨立結構。)

(xii)在辭典中,處格被用來顯示字根,如: √ru (噪音), ru sadde意為”製造噪音”。

(xiii)指稱”健康,適合性”的字彙接用處格:－ tayi na yuttaj (不適合你, not fit for thee);屬格被用作相同意義: tava na yuttaj.

(xiv)處格廣泛用來取代其它格位。見到處格經常使用取代其他格位,學生必須有心理準備。

(xv)處格用以替代屬格(見前第v項。)

(xvi)處格用以替代具格: pattesu pindaya caranti (他們遊行托缽乞食, they go with bowls for their food.)

(xvii)處格也用以取代為格: savghe dinnaj mahapphalaj [供養僧伽果報大, offering to the Clergy are very meritorious.]

(xviii)處格也被用以取代從格: kadalīdesu gaje rakkhanti (他們保護象群離於車前草樹, they keep off the elephants from the plantain-trees.)

(xix)處格經常作副詞使用: atīte (以前, formerly)

602. 呼格不需要任何解釋說明: 它的使用和英語完全一樣。

603. (當句子含數個動作,又分別屬不同作者,每組可用一獨立結構)

(i) 當一名詞或代名詞的處格或屬格,與相同格位的分詞連用,這種結構分別稱為處格獨立結構、屬格獨立結構。處格獨立結構被比屬格獨立結構更常見。有時還會發現有主格獨立結構,不過沒有其它兩個那麼普遍。

(ii) 處格,屬格和(有時)主格獨立結構,經常可以被翻譯為“在...的時候when,於…的同時while,自…以後since ”,有時譯為“雖然although ”: － tesu vivadantesu bodhisatto cintesi [當他們在爭論中,菩提薩埵(菩薩、未來佛)他思考著, while they were disputing, the Future Buddha thought; Vivadati (vi + vad + a)爭論;【PPR】~danta]; －suriye atthavgate (當夕陽西下後, when the sun had set, after sunset);－gavisu duyhamanasu gato(他去時,牛正被擠乳, he went when the cows were being milked);－asaniya pi sīse patantiya (雖然雷電正落在他們的頭頂上, although the thunderbolt was falling on their head.)

(iii)單字sati, 處格單數為santo,也是動atthi(是, to be)的現在分詞,除以上意義外,也經常翻譯為”如果,這樣的話”。它也跟女性字合用: satiya (f. ,應該是) － atthe sati (如果有需要, if there be need);－evaj sati (如是這樣的話, such being the case); － payoge sati (當有...場合, when there is occasion.);－pucchaya f./loc/sg sati(如果問題被提問的話, if the question be asked); －ruciya sati (如果他有願望, if he had the wish; Ruci【f.】愛好)

(iv)屬格獨立結構雖沒處格獨立結構那麼常用,但也算夠常見: － sakunakassa gumbato jalaj mocentass’eva[即使當時小鳥從矮數叢網鬆脫, even while the bird was disengaging the net from the bush; Gumba【m.】矮樹叢;Jala【n.】網,糾纏。Moceti (muc + e)釋放、解脫【PPR】mocenta。]－ tesajkilantanaj yeva suriyatthavigatavela jata [雖然他們還在作樂,暮色生起 while even they were sporting, it became dusk. Vela【f.】時間。Jata (jayati 的【PPP】)已變成,已發生。]

(v)還有先前提及所謂的主格獨立結構:－gacchanto bharadvajo so (婆羅豆婆羅他正走去, Bharadvaja having gone he )

註: 屬格獨立結構經常用以表達”無視於,漠視”, 它因此可譯為”不管in spite of, 儘管notwithstanding”。例句 (見601, viii)

604 (i) 如前所述,當形容詞不構成複合字,就需與所修飾的字性、數、格一致。

(ii) 形容詞的比較級要用從格: －sīlaj eva suta seyyo (戒行優於學識, virtue is better than learning)

(iii)從格後接形容詞原級也表比較:－madhura pataliputtakehi abhirupa (摩度羅國人比華氏城人俊美, the people of Madhura are more handsome than those of Pataliputta)

(iv) 從格接不變化詞varaj (較佳)亦為比較: tato varaj (比那個好, better than that.)

(v) 用屬格及形容詞原級表達”兩個中的較好者”:－tumhakaj dvinnaj ko bhaddako(你那兩個哪個較好？of you two who is the better?)

(vi) 形容詞最高級用屬格或處格,例句見以上(601, iv)
■代名詞的句法(Syntax of Pronouns)

1. 人稱代名詞 (Personal Pronouns)

605. (i)人稱代詞的使用,很多跟英語一樣,不需特別強調,如果有的話那就是ahaj和tvaj(289-b, c; 290, c)附屬語形外。

(ii) ahaj的附屬語形有: me和no;tvaj則有: te和vo,它們從不使用在句首,也不馬上緊接質詞ca, ta, eva: detu me (願他給我, let him give to me); tava va me hotu (願它成為你或我的, be it thine or mine); kammaj no nitthitaj (我們的工作結束了, our task is finished; Nitthati (ni + tha + a)被完成;【PPP】nitthita。); ko te doso (你的過失是什麼, what is thy fault?) kahaj vo raja(你們的國王何在? where is your king?)

(iii)由於動詞時態字尾,也清楚表明人稱,人稱代詞經常被省略,其如: gacchati = so gacchati (他去, he goes); gaccheyyami = ahaj gaccheyyami (我可能會去, I should go)

(iv)人稱代詞so, sa, taj也被用作指示代詞以及冠詞, (見589)。因此, so puriso依據上下文,意思可以是“一男子”或是“那一男子”。

(v) Tasma (從格)被用作副詞,意義為“因此、所以”。以同樣意義,它後面也接續著hi和ti ha (=iti ha),如: tasma hi pabba ca dhanena seyyo(因此智慧優於財富, and therefore is wisdom better than riches); tasma ti ha bhikkhave (因此,比丘們啊！accordingly, O monks!)

(vi)具格tena與tasma用於相同的意思,如: tena taj madhuraj(因此它是甜的, therefore, it is sweet.) Tena隨在hi後表:“好well! all right! ,非常好very well!” tena hi khadapessami nan ti (很好,所以我將讓你吃了他 very well, then, I’ll make you devour him.)

(vii) Naj和enaj (295, 300),用以表達已經提過、又再次提及的某些事物或人(見296)。

606.(i) eso, esa, etaj (298)為近稱,意義為:這、此this: esa itthī (此女, this woman); nirupakaro esa [她這無用之物, this (fellow) is useless.];相同的重點適用於ayaj, asu (此, this)。註: esa經常用來代eso;sa代so。

(ii)中性字etad (= etaj, 302)與動詞hoti、屬格一起用,其表達“想, to think”: tassa etad ahosi [他那時這麼想, he thought...(直譯 =of his this was).]
3. 關係代名詞 (The Relative)

607. (i)關係代名詞已經說明過(見592);只有少數重要特殊用法需要在此提及︰

(ii) Yo (311)與不限定詞連用,如koci (319): yo koci (不論是誰whoever,任何人 anyone); yaj kibci (任何事物, anything), (見314-a, b)。

(iii)中性單數型的yaj經常當副詞使用,意義為“因為、既然、如果、當”,如: taj bahuj yaj pi jīvasi (它多的夠你生活, it is much that thou live.)

(iv)具格yena用作副詞,意思為“憑此,因為”: yena naj ganhissami (以此我將可抓住他, by which I shall catch him.)

(v) 當用來表達當行動的趣向、明確方所, yena(該處where),它跟tena(那裡)合用 (句型yena +主格.. tena表往詣某人/處 ): yena bhagava, ten’upasavkamati [他到世尊所在之處、他往詣世尊, he went to Buddha (直譯: where was Buddha there he approached. Upasavkamati (upa+sam + kam + a)靠近)

(vi) Yasma (從格),使用意義為“因為”,且其後通常隨有tasma (因此、所以): yasma tvaj na janasi tasma balo’sī ti (因為你不知,所以你是個傻瓜; because thou doth not understand, therefore art thou a fool.)

4. 疑問詞 (The Interrogative)

608. (i)疑問詞代詞ko ( 316 ) ,可單獨使用或者與名詞、代名詞合用: ko pana tvaj (你是誰? who art thou?) ke ete(這些是什麼人?who are these? ) ka darika (哪個女孩？which girl?)

(ii) kena (具格)跟attho合用,且人要用為格,構成句型如”你想要什麼?”: kena te attho (你需要什麼？what are you in need of?)

(iii) kena (具格) kasma (從格)和kissa (屬格)當副詞用,意義為“為什麼, why? ”

(iv) kij多與具格合用,表達“有什麼用呢？what is the use of?” kij me jīvitena (生命對我有什麼用呢? what is the use to me of life?)

609.不定代詞(如ci,見319), 沒有任何特別之處: ma idha koci pavisi (別讓人進入這裡, let no-body enter here); kibci bhayaj(任何駭怕, any fear)

610. 重複表達“複數,整體,分配,多種,多樣” 等等,字彙有時會重複(以強調): tesu tesu thanesu (處處, in various places); taj taj kathaya mana(說這說這, saying this and this; Katha, 【f. f.】談話。Mana【m.】自豪,慢心)。yo,表”任何人whoever,任何事物whatever,無論哪個whichever”: yaj yaj gamaj(無論哪個村莊, whatever village); itara ten’eva niyamena ya ya. kibci katheti tassa tassa upari kacavaraj chaddesi(aor丟), [且這樣一來,另一個(婦女)投垃圾到說(出任何)話的人身上and in this way the other (woman) threw the refuse on whomsoever said anything. Itara,【adj.】另一個。Niyama【m.】確定,決定。Kacavara【m.】垃圾。chaddesi (chaddeti, aor丟棄)。]; so ditthaditthamanuse jīvitakkhayaj papeti [他見到(任何)人就使（其）命滅, he kills all whom he sees]; gatagatatthane (所到之處, in every place), yena kena (以任何的..., by whatever ...); ubbahīyati (caus.pass./3^rd/sg) so so [人人逃跑,every one is put to flight; Ubbahati (u + vah + a)拉出, 取走]。

611. (i)動詞和主詞的一致(見590.1)。

(ii)現在式指稱現在進行的動作,一個現在存在的事實。例: so bhayati (他駭怕, he is afraid); sa pacati (她煮, she cooks.)

(iii)現在式經常表示持續動作,相當於現在(英語的)進行式: sa gabbhe nisīdati (她正坐在內室, she is sitting in her private room. Gabbha【m.】內室。)

(iv)習性、風俗和不變的事實用現在式表示: sabbe maranti [一切(人)皆有死, all (men) die]; bhikkhu sīlaj acarati (一位比丘修習戒行: a monk practises virtue.)

(v)現在式有時被用來表示普通的未來: kij karomi (我將要做什麼？what shall I do?)

(vi)當詳細敘述過去事件,好像正在進行,這類現在式使用頻繁,稱為歷史上的現在(Historical Present): － so pabcamanavakasatani sippaj ugganhapeti (他教500個年輕人技, he taught five hundred young men). manavaka【m.】年輕人;sippa【n.】技術,手藝。Ugganhapeti【caus.】教。

(vii)當不使用疑問質詞時,有時會置現在式於句首來表達疑問句: － socasi tvaj upasaka (優婆塞啊,你傷心嗎？grievest thou, O layman? Socati (suc + a), 哀悼,傷心。)

註: 其他時態也可能以同樣方式表達疑問。