Masaryk university

1 The thesis was written to the 20th of April 2010 so it may not reflect the most up-to-date development of the conflict in Turkey.

2 Peter Wallensteen, Understanding Conflict Resolution (London: Sage Publications, 2007), p. 15.

3 Ibid., p. 14.

4 Dean G. Pruitt and Sung Hee Kim, Social Conflict: Escalation Stalemate, and Settlement (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004), p. 9.

5 Peter Wallensteen, Understanding Conflict Resolution (London: Sage Publications, 2007), p. 69.

6 Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP), “Turkey (Kurdistan).” UCDP Database, Uppsala University, 2008, http://www.pcr.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=158®ionSelect=10-Middle_East#, accessed March 2010.

7 Edward E. Azar, “Protracted International Conflicts: Ten Propositions,” International Interactions, Vol. 12, Issue 1 (June 1985): 59-70.

8 David McDowall, A Modern history of the Kurds (London: Tauris, 2004), p. 2-3. See Map No. 1 in Attachements.

9 Henri J. Barkey and Graham E. Fuller, Turkey’s Kurdish Question (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), p. 2.

10 Gareth Jenkins, “Turkey and Northern Iraq: An Overview,” The Jamestown Foundation, Occasional Paper, February 2008, p. 5.

11 David McDowall, A Modern history of the Kurds (London: Tauris, 2004), p. 3.

12 Svante E. Cornell, “The Land of Many Crossroads: The Kurdish Question in Turkish Politics,” Orbis, Vol. 45, No. 1 (2001): 35.

13 Gareth Jenkins, “Turkey and Northern Iraq: An Overview,” The Jamestown Foundation, Occasional Paper, February 2008, p. 5.

14 David McDowall, A Modern history of the Kurds (London: Tauris, 2004), p. 7.

15 Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds Ascending: The Evolving Solution to the Kurdish Problem in Iraq and Turkey (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2008), p. 4.

16 Peter Hinchcliffe and Beverley Milton-Edwards, Conflicts in the Middle East since 1945 (London: Routledge, 2007).

17 Peter Wallensteen, Understanding Conflict Resolution (London: Sage Publications, 2007), p. 14.

18 David McDowall, A Modern history of the Kurds (London: Tauris, 2004), p. 404.

19 Ibid., p. 407.

20 David Romano, The Kurdish nationalist movement: opportunity, mobilization and identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 50.

21 Ibid., p. 52.

22 Lewis A. Coser, Continuities in the study of social conflict (New York: Free Press, 1967).

23 Gareth Jenkins, “Turkey and Northern Iraq: An Overview,” The Jamestown Foundation, Occasional Paper, February 2008.

24 Gunter estimates that there is more than million Kurds outside Turkey, from which half resides in Germany. Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds Ascending: The Evolving Solution to the Kurdish Problem in Iraq and Turkey (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2008), p. 2.

25 Henri J. Barkey and Graham E. Fuller, Turkey’s Kurdish Question (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998).

26 Kerim Yildiz, The Kurds in Turkey: EU Accession and Human Rights (London: Pluto Press, 2005), p. 111.

27 Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds Ascending: The Evolving Solution to the Kurdish Problem in Iraq and Turkey (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2008), p. 10.

28 Michael Radu, “The Rise and Fall of the PKK,” Orbis, Vol. 45, Issue 1 (Winter 2001).

29 Ibid.

30 David Romano, The Kurdish nationalist movement: opportunity, mobilization and identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 77.

31 Ibid., p. 142.

32 Ali Carkoglu and William Hale, eds., The politics of modern Turkey: critical issues in modern politics. Vol. III Modern Turkey’s Foreign Policy (London: Routledge, 2008), p. 258.

33 In 2002 PKK changed its name to KADEK (Congress for Freedom and Democracy in Kurdistan). In 2003 it renamed to Kongra-Gel (People’s Congress of Kurdistan) and finally in 2005 it restore to its original name.

34 “Turkey thanks Belgium for its fight against PKK,” March 4, 2010, Hürriyet Daily News, http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=turkey-thanks-belgium-for-fight-against-pkk-2010-03-04, accessed March 5, 2010.

35 Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (New York: Free Press, 1964), p. 154-6.

36 Peter Wallensteen, Understanding Conflict Resolution (London: Sage Publications, 2007), p. 59.

37 Ibid., p. 49.

38 Stephen F. Larrabee and Ian O. Lesser. “Turkey and the United States” in The Politics of Modern Turkey, eds. Ali Carkoglu and William Hale (London: Routledge, 2008).

39 Henri J. Barkey, Preventing Conflict over Kurdistan (Washington D.C./Moscow/Beijing/Beirut/Brussels: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2009), p. 20.

40 Stephen F. Larrabee and Ian O. Lesser. “Turkey and the United States” in The Politics of Modern Turkey, eds. Ali Carkoglu and William Hale (London: Routledge, 2008). gunter 2005

41 For distribution of Kurds In Iraq see map no. 2 in attachements.

42 Henri J. Barkey, “Kurdistandoff,” The National Interest 90 (Jul/Aug 2007): 52.

43 Gareth Jenkins, “Turkey and Northern Iraq: An Overview,” The Jamestown Foundation, Occasional Paper, February 2008.

44 International Crisis Group (ICG). “Turkey and Iraqi Kurds: Conflict or Cooperation?,” Middle East Report 81, 13 November 2008.

45 Soner Cagaptay, “Everybody’s Kurdish Problem,” Washington Institute for Near East Policy, November 1, 2007, http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC06.php?CID=1106, accessed April 2010.

46 David L. Phillips, “Disarming, Demobilizing, and Reintegrating the Kurdistan Workers’ Party,” National Committee on American Foreign Policy, October 15, 2007, http://www.ncafp.org/articles/07%20Report%20on%20Disarming,%20Demobilizing%20and%20Reintegrating%20the%20Kurdistan%20Workers%20Party.pdf, accessed February 2010.

47 Gareth Jenkins, “Turkey and Northern Iraq: An Overview,” The Jamestown Foundation, Occasional Paper, February 2008.

48 There is a political, economic and aquis criterion. In respect to the situation of Kurds the request for respect of minority rights is of special importance.

49 In 2009 only 48 per cent was in favor of Turkish membership in EU. It is a stark decrease in comparison to 73 per cent in 2004. “Transatlantic Trends: Key Findings 2009.” The German Marshal Fund of the United States (GMF), 2009, http://www.gmfus.org/trends/2009/docs/2009_English_Key.pdf, accessed April 2010.

50 Hugh Pope, “The EU-Turkey-Cyprus Triangle: ‘EU and Turkey Edge Back from the Brink,’” International Crisis Group (ICG), January 5, 2010, http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=6458, accessed March 12, 2010.

51 Kemal Kirisci, “The Kurdish Question and Turkey: Future Challenges and Prospects for a Solution,” ISPI Working Paper, Issue 24 (December 2007).

52 Peter Wallensteen, Understanding Conflict Resolution (London: Sage Publications, 2007), p. 50.

53 Michael Radu, “The Rise and Fall of the PKK,” Orbis, Vol. 45, Issue 1 (Winter 2001).

54 Abdullah Ocalan, “Proposals for Solution to the Kurdish Question in Turkey,” December 2007, http://freedom-for-ocalan.com/english/download/proposals-for-a-solution.pdf, accessed March 2010.

55 Emrullah Uslu, “Resolution of Turkey’s ‘Kurdish Question’ in Critical Stage as PKK Threatens to End Peace Initiatives,” Terrorism Monitor, Vol. 8, Issue 7 (February 2010).

56 European Commission, “Turkey 2005 Progress Report,” SEC (2005) 1426, 9 November, 2005, http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/archives/pdf/key_documents/2005/package/sec_1426_final_progress_report_tr_en.pdf, accessed February 2010.

57 Marlies Casier, Andy Hilton, and Joost Jongerden, “’Road Maps’ and Roadblocks in Turkey’s Southeast,” Middle East Report, 30 October 2009, http://www.merip.org/mero/mero103009.html, accessed April 2010.

58 David Romano, The Kurdish nationalist movement: opportunity, mobilization and identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 121.

59 Ibid., p. 73.

60 Cengiz Candar, “The Kurdish Question: The Reasons and Fortunes of the ‘Opening’,” Insight Turkey, Vol. 11, No. 4 (2009): 13-19.

61 “Turkey Military Strength,” GlobalFirePower.com, February 12, 2009, http://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=Turkey, accessed February 2010.

62 Emrullah Uslu, “Tackling the PKK: New Directions for Turkey’s Special Forces,” Terrorism Monitor, Vol. 6 Issue 14 (July 2008).

63 Ibid.

64 The agreement established the common cooperation against the PKK. It did not, however, include Turkey‘s right to a cross-border operations against the outlawed group inside Iraq. International Crisis Group (ICG). “Turkey and Iraqi Kurds: Conflict or Cooperation?,” Middle East Report 81, 13 November 2008, p. 5.

65 Ibid., p. 5.

66 U.S. Department of State, “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008.” United States Department of State Publication, Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, April 2009, http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/122599.pdf, accessed April 2010.

67 U.S. Department of State, “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008.” United States Department of State Publication, Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, April 2009, http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/122599.pdf, accessed April 2010.

68 “Kurds and pay – Examining PKK financing,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, Terrorism & Insurgency, March 13, 2008.

69 Henri J. Barkey and Graham E. Fuller, Turkey’s Kurdish Question (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), p. 48.

70 Ibid.

71 David Romano, The Kurdish nationalist movement: opportunity, mobilization and identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 83.

72 Dogu Ergil, “The Kurdish Question in Turkey,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 11, No. 3 (July 2000): 122-135.

73 David Romano, The Kurdish nationalist movement: opportunity, mobilization and identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 61.

74 Gareth Jenkins, “Turkey and Northern Iraq: An Overview,” The Jamestown Foundation, Occasional Paper, February 2008, p. 4.

75 Louis Kriesberg, Constructive Conflicts: From Escalation to Resolution (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998).

76 Bill Park, Turkey's policy towards Northern Iraq: problems and perspectives (New York: Routledge, 2005), p. 17.

77 Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP), “Turkey (Kurdistan).” UCDP Database, Uppsala University, 2008, http://www.pcr.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=158®ionSelect=10-Middle_East#, accessed March 2010.

78 Henri J. Barkey and Graham E. Fuller, Turkey’s Kurdish Question (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), p. 22.

79 The system was intended to be only a temporary measure; however, it is still in place. It is estimated that there are 70 000 village guards in Turkey, of which 57,174 are temporary and 12,279 are volunteers. Laurie Freeman, ed, A Roadmap for a Solution to the Kurdish Question: Policy Proposals from the Region for the Government (Istanbul: TESEV Publications, 2008).

80 David McDowall, A Modern history of the Kurds (London: Tauris, 2004), p. 23.

81 S. Jarosławski, “Human rights of the Kurdish community in Turkey”, Netzwerk Migration, 2008, http://www.migrationeducation.org/27.1.html?&rid=111&cHash=a296177910, accessed March 2010.

82 Nesrin Ucarlar, Between Majority Power and Minority Resistance: Kurdish Linguistic Rights in Turkey (Lund: Lund University, 2009).

83 Marlies Casier, Andy Hilton, and Joost Jongerden, “’Road Maps’ and Roadblocks in Turkey’s Southeast,” Middle East Report, 30 October 2009, http://www.merip.org/mero/mero103009.html, accessed April 2010.

84 See for instance: Amnesty International, “Turkey.” Amnesty International Report 2009, http://thereport.amnesty.org/en/regions/europe-central-asia/turkey, accessed April 2010.

85 S. Jarosławski, “Human rights of the Kurdish community in Turkey”, Netzwerk Migration, 2008, http://www.migrationeducation.org/27.1.html?&rid=111&cHash=a296177910, accessed March 2010.

86 Henri J. Barkey and Graham E. Fuller, Turkey’s Kurdish Question (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), p. 28.

87 Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP), “Turkey (Kurdistan).” UCDP Database, Uppsala University, 2008, http://www.pcr.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=158®ionSelect=10-Middle_East#, accessed March 2010.

88 The Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI), “PKK Military Wing Commander: Turkey May Become ‘Exact Replica of Iraq.’“ March 4, 2008, http://www.kurdishaspect.com/doc030408MEM.html, accessed March 2010.

89 Matthew Kocher, “The Decline of PKK and the Viability of a One-state Solution in Turkey,“ MOST Journal on Multicultural Societies, Vol. 4, No. 1 (2002): 6.

90 Ferhad Ibrahim and Gülistan Gürbey, eds., The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey. Obstacles and Changes for Peace and Democracy (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), p. 11.

91 Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds Ascending: The Evolving Solution to the Kurdish Problem in Iraq and Turkey (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2008), p. 66.

92 Republic of Turkey. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. “PKK/KONGRA-GEL,” http://www.mfa.gov.tr/pkk_kongra-gel.en.mfa, accessed February 2010.

93 Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds Ascending: The Evolving Solution to the Kurdish Problem in Iraq and Turkey (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2008), p. 106.

94 Republic of Turkey. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. “Concept and Ideology of Terrorism,” http://www.mfa.gov.tr/concept--and-ideology-of-terrorism_.en.mfa, accessed February 2010.

95 Kemal Kirisci, “The Kurdish Question and Turkey: Future Challenges and Prospects for a Solution,” ISPI Working Paper, Issue 24 (December 2007).

96 Emrullah Uslu, “Turkey’s Kurdish Problem: Steps Toward Solution,” Studies in Conflict &Terroris, Vol. 30, No. 2 (2007): 163.

97 Peter Wallensteen, Understanding Conflict Resolution (London: Sage Publications, 2007), p. 37-38.

98 “Erdogan defends military in fight against terror.” Turkish Daily News, October 17, 2008, http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=117772, accessed December 2009.

99 Emrullah Uslu, “Turkey’s Kurdish Problem: Steps Toward Solution,” Studies in Conflict &Terroris, Vol. 30, No. 2 (2007): 169.

100 Dean G. Pruitt and Sung Hee Kim, Social Conflict: Escalation Stalemate, and Settlement (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004).

101 David Romano, The Kurdish nationalist movement: opportunity, mobilization and identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 87-88.

102 Emrullah Uslu, “Resolution of Turkey’s ‘Kurdish Question’ in Critical Stage as PKK Threatens to End Peace Initiatives,” Terrorism Monitor, Vol. 8, Issue 7 (February 2010).

103 Ibid.

104 SETA & POLLMARK, Public Perception of the Kurdish Question in Turkey (Ankara: Design & Layout by Harun Tan, Ümare Yazar, 2009).

105 Bulent Aras, “Turkey’s War on Terror,” SETA Policy Brief No. 2, November 2007.

106 Michael Radu, “Terrorism is Free Speech,” E-notes FPRI, February 10, 2004, http://www.fpri.org/enotes/20040210.middleeast.radu.terrorismfreespeech.html, accessed March 2010.

107 Henri J. Barkey and Graham E. Fuller, Turkey’s Kurdish Question (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), p. 17.

108 Matthew Kocher, “The Decline of PKK and the Viability of a One-state Solution in Turkey,“ MOST Journal on Multicultural Societies, Vol. 4, No. 1 (2002): 2-3.

109 Henri J. Barkey and Graham E. Fuller, Turkey’s Kurdish Question (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), p. 12.

110 Kemal Kirisci, “The Kurdish Question and Turkey: Future Challenges and Prospects for a Solution,” ISPI Working Paper, Issue 24 (December 2007), p. 13.

111 SETA & POLLMARK, Public Perception of the Kurdish Question in Turkey (Ankara: Design & Layout by Harun Tan, Ümare Yazar, 2009).

112 Ibid., p. 70.

113 Ibid.

114 The military intervened in order to defend secularism in 1960, 1971, 1980 and 1997.

115 Egemen Basar Bezci, “The Kurdish Question in Turkey: A Critical Juncture,” Telavivnotes, 17 August 2009, http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/Kurdish_question_in_Turkey.pdf, accessed March 2010.

116 International Crisis Group (ICG), “Turkey and Europe: the Decisive Year Ahead,” Europe Report 197, 15 December 2008, p. 11.

117 Commission of the European Communities, “Turkey 2009 Progress Report,” Commission Staff Working Document SEC(2009)1334, 14 October 2009, http://www.abgs.gov.tr/files/AB_Iliskileri/Tur_En_Realitons/Progress/turkey_progress_report_2009.pdf, accessed April 2010.

118 International Crisis Group (ICG), “Turkey and Europe: the Decisive Year Ahead,” Europe Report 197, 15 December 2008, p. 11.

119 In 2007 AKP won 46.7 per cent, CHP 20.8 per cent and MHP 14.3 percent of the voters support.

120 Justice and Development Party, “Development and Democratization,” Program, February 2, 2007, http://eng.akparti.org.tr/english/partyprogramme.html, accessed February 2010.

121 Emrullah Uslu, “PKK Leader Abdullah Ocalan Challenges Omission from Peace Initiative from His Prison Cell,” Terrorism Monitor, Vol. 7, Issue 37 (December 2009).

122 Nicole F. Watts, “Allies and Enemies: Pro-Kurdish Parties in Turkish Politics, 1990-94,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 31, No. 4 (November 1999): 631-656.

123 Kemal Kirisci and Gareth M. Winrow, The Kurdish Question and Turkey. An Example of a Trans-state Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass Publishers, 1997), p. 151.

124 The court already closed seven pro-Kurdish parties.

125 Henri J. Barkey and Graham E. Fuller, Turkey’s Kurdish Question (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), p. 40.

126 Kemal Ali Ozcan, Turkey's Kurds. A theoretical analysis of the PKK and Abdullah Ocalan (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), p. 157-158.

127 Ibid., p. 222.

128 Murat Somer, “Why Aren’t Kurds like the Scots and the Turks Like the Brits?: Moderation and Democracy in the Kurdish Question,”