Convention on biological diversity
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II.Institutional and social weaknessesLack of scientific knowledge and inadequate use of local knowledgeIn many cases there is an inadequate knowledge of natural ecosystems (their components, structure and functioning). Furthermore, destruction and decline of cultures that possess a traditional understanding of nature is resulting in a permanent loss of important complementary information on ecosystem function and management. These gaps in knowledge arise from an insufficient research effort in the study and monitoring of forest ecosystems. Such research is necessary in order to improve understanding of how various components interact, to improve information on traditional use and knowledge of biodiversity and to implement appropriate changes in ecosystem use. Lack of good governanceThe lack of good governance, rampant corruption and fraud are major underlying causes of forest decline as they surround illegal logging and other forest related crimes, such as arson and poaching. Politicians and civil servants may misuse the public power entrusted to them by, for instance, sale of logging concessions for personal enrichment, by not enforcing laws and regulations and by partaking in other illegal and corrupt activities. This generally weakens the administrative apparatus, deprives the government of income, generates incentives for “cut and run” logging operations and increases investment risks, thereby reducing incentives for sustainable forest management. The consequence in terms of forest biological loss and loss of related goods and services is often dramatic. Illegal loggingA number of recent publications have revealed the extent of the wide range of illegal activities to be one of the major causes of forest decline (see Box 8). In the 1980s, the Philippines lost about US$ 1.6 billion per year, a large share of the country's gross domestic product, to illegal logging24. In 1993, Malaysian log exports to Japan were underdeclared by as much as 40%. Up to one-third of the volume of timber harvested in Ghana may be illegal and observers indicate that money injected into the country as part of a SAP led to illegal practices on a massive scale (Contreras-Hermosilla, 2000). An internal report by the Cameroon Ministry of Environment and Forests (MINEF, 1999; see also FERN, 2000) provides clear evidence of large scale, illegal activities by logging companies in Cameroon. Six companies that are amongst the largest loggers of Cameroon forests are said not to respect basic requirements of sustainable forest management. For example, they do not prepare management plans and have no respect for environmental laws. In Indonesia, illegal logging has been recognised as the most important cause of forest decline, about half to two thirds (30-50 million m³) of wood consumed each year comes from illegal sources. It is exacerbated by bad governance and corruption, which often include the direct involvement of military, police and forestry officials (Forest Liaison Bureau, 2000). If the current rate of deforestation continues in Indonesia, the lowland forest of the Sunda Shelf, some of the richest forests on earth, will be completely degraded by 2005 on Sumatra and by 2010 in Kalimantan (Jepson et al., 2001). Global Witness (1998) described the scale of corrupt forest activities in Cambodia and stated that in 1997 much of the estimated US$184 million worth of timber felled in the country went into the pockets of corrupt officials. Illegal logging could mean the complete disappearance of Cambodia's forests in only five years time. All these studies strongly suggest a close link between illegal and corrupt activities on one hand and forest decline on the other. Greenpeace launched a series of press releases that provide evidence of the import of illegally logged wood products into the United States, Japan and European countries. According to one of their studies (Greenpeace, 2000), 80% of all wood logged in the Amazon is taken illegally. The forestry sectors of tropical countries are particularly susceptible to illegal operations and corruption. There are several reasons for this: (a) In most tropical countries, forest activities take place in remote areas, away from the press, the public and official scrutiny. (b) Wood, particularly in tropical countries, is valuable but not inventoried. It is thus difficult to determine how much wood is illegally extracted. (c) Frequently, officials have substantial discretionary power. High timber values and high discretionary power held by poorly paid government officials are ideal conditions for corruption (Contreras-Hermosilla 1997). Illegal logging is not limited to tropical countries but also occurs in other countries facing political and/or economic changes such as the Russian Federation, where an unknown, but probably substantial amount of timber is illegally logged and traded and exported, mainly to Chinese and Japanese markets but also to western Europe (see, for example, FOE, 2000).
Lack of secure land tenure and land rights and uneven distribution of ownershipThe lack of secure land tenure and the inadequate recognition of the rights and needs of forest-dependent indigenous and local communities have also been recognised as major underlying causes of forest decline (IFF, 2000). Weak property rights reduce the incentive for sustainably managing the forests and unsecured land tenure is often directly related to deforestation. Local communities and indigenous people have, in many cases, traditional ways of sustainably managing the forests, ensuring that they remain viable for use by future generations. Increasing inequality of land ownership often leads to the breakdown of such common property management schemes. The rapid depletion of species and destruction of habitats occur in many countries where a minority of the population may own or control most of the land. Quick profits from excessive logging can flow to a small group of people, while the forest dependent local communities pay the price. Clear ownership rights are one of the prerequisites for developing sustainable management plans and applying regulations for ensuring the conservation and sustainable management of forests. Forest land often has a smaller value than agricultural land and, in the absence of laws that forbid deforestation, it is, therefore, cleared following privatisation. On the other hand, privatisation can be a prerequisite for ensuring sufficient investments in order to ensure the sustainable management of the forest. Loss of cultural identity and spiritual valuesAs cultural homogenisation sweeps across the world, the vast range of human knowledge, skills, beliefs and responses to biological diversity is eroded, leading to great impoverishment in the fund of human intellectual resources. Loss of cultural diversity, as a result of globalisation, leads to loss of biological diversity by diminishing the variety of approaches to the coexistence of humans, other animals and plants that have been successful in the past. Loss of the different cultures also reduces the possibility of imaginative new approaches being developed in the future. Lack of capacity, technical and financial resourcesDespite all the efforts of donors and international organisations to provide money and the technology necessary to help conserve and sustainably manage forests, the lack of technical expertise and financial resources is still a very important cause of forest decline. Understaffed forest authorities, lack of knowledge about forest biological diversity and related goods and services and the lack of available qualified personal lead to little or no application or enforcement of forestry laws. In Gabon, for example, only 100 agents were available to monitor and inspect 332 logging concessions covering 86,000 km2 (Global Forest Watch, 2000). Another underlying cause for poor forest management is the lack of appropriate forest management plans and of their implementation. Again in Gabon, only five of 200 logging companies have initiated work on a management plan (Global Forest Watch, 2000). Deficiencies in the flow of information to decision-makers and to local communitiesWhere scientific or traditional knowledge exists, it does not necessarily flow efficiently to decision-makers, who may in consequence often fail to develop policies that reflect the full values of biodiversity. Information also fails to flow efficiently between central decision-makers and local communities. To complicate things further, there is a strong public reluctance to accept policies that reduce excessive resource consumption, no matter how logical or necessary such policies may be. |