Convention on biological diversity

I. Implications of declining trends in FBD

All forest areas have some role in conservation and use of forest biological diversity, but any given forest area cannot produce all goods and services. Maintenance (and where appropriate enhancement) of FBD is an important aspect of conservation and sustainable forest management; this applies to the whole range of forests from protected primary forests, managed (semi-)natural forests, plantations and other ecosystems that include elements of FBD.

WWF and IUCN have identified five priority objectives to halt and reverse the decline in the global forest estate (WWF/IUCN, 1996; WWF 2001):

(a) To establish a network of ecologically representative, socially beneficial and effectively managed forest protected areas

(b) To achieve environmentally appropriate, socially beneficial and economically viable management of forests outside protected areas

(c) To develop and implement environmentally appropriate and socially beneficial programmes to restore deforested and degraded forest landscapes

(d) To protect forests from pollution and global warming by reducing polluting emissions and managing forests for resilience to climate change

(e) To ensure that political and commercial decisions taken in other sectors safeguard forest resources and result in a fair distribution of associated costs and benefits.

It is likely not possible to maintain all of the characteristics of a natural forest landscape and forest structure in protected areas. For this reason, the implementation of sustainable management practices is of utmost importance. Nature reserves can in addition, and when actually managed, complement biodiversity programs in managed forests. Protected areas also provide scientific ‘benchmarks’ against which to measure progress towards sustainability in forest management.

Protected forest areas are of special interest because their primary aim is the maintenance of FBD. These areas, however, should be managed in context with surrounding areas because forests are not static in time. Semi-natural managed forests are important in maintaining many elements of FBD and producing goods and services. This also concerns plantation forests, in which these diversity aspects should be enhanced. Further, protected areas should also be a part of a reserve network at a larger, regional scale. Reserve networks should be both representative and complementary, which means that all habitat types of natural and semi-natural ecosystems should be represented in the network. Especially lowland forests on fertile soils, riverine and many coastal woodlands are underrepresented in conservation area systems of many countries.

In selecting individual reserves several aspects should be taken into account (Spellerberg, 1994), including size and extent of the area, diversity of species, communities and ecosystems, naturalness, rarity and commonness, and fragility. The larger the area the more species that are included and the larger the population size of the individual species (Connor et al. 2000). In addition, the negative impacts of events in surrounding habitats are proportionately smaller on large areas. However, many species and habitats occur in specific, small-scale sites, such as springs, small wetlands and other various sites with varying edaphic, hydrological and microclimatic conditions (Rabinovitz et al. 1986). In such cases, protection of small sites/areas is well founded. Diversity of species, communities and ecosystems is important, but species-poor habitats should be emphasized if they consist of rare or endangered species or unique habitats. Fragility of a habitat should also be taken into account in founding reserves.

Forest planning should be carried out on a landscape-scale to ensure long-term sustainable use. Landscape ecological planning has been introduced in recent years in many forest countries, e.g. all state-owned forest lands in Finland (Karvonen, 2000). Such ecological planning involves an understanding of the natural disturbances, which controls the landscape structure or pattern. In Sweden, this landscape approach has been used on the large forest estates of major forestry companies. One earlier application of this thinking is the so-called ASIO model in Sweden. This model has been developed for forestry to better mimic the disturbance dynamics of different forest types (Angelstam et al. 1993, Angelstam 1997, 1998). The model is based on the intensity and significance of fire occurring in different types of forests. Forests are divided into whose, which burn almost never (A), seldom (S), intermediately (I) and often (O). The model suggests that different forestry practices, based on natural disturbance models, should be carried out in these four fire frequency classes.

A number of traditional and modern sustainable livelihoods exist, which can be well combined with forest protection programmes and sustainable forest management. These include the harvesting of many non-timber forest resources, like collecting food products (wild fruits, mushrooms, berries), medicinal plants, natural rubber, fibres etc. If properly planned, these will also have the dual benefit of revitalising local economies and fighting rural depopulation. Also nature-oriented tourism, if well implemented, can be an actively compatible and even supportive, of the conservation of forest protected areas. When developing these activities, needs of Indigenous Peoples and local communities should be fully taken into account. Participatory approach and community involvement are key issues in the sustainable management of natural resources.
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ANNEX I