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Convention on biological diversity


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Table 2. Estimated Annual Environmental Values (1989 US$/ha) of Primary Forests (Constantino and Kishor, 1993)

Environmental Service
Primary Forest
Min.
Max.
Carbon Sequestration (about US$20 per tonne of carbon)
60
120
Hydrologic Benefits
17
36
Ecotourism
13
25
Future Pharmaceuticals
0.15
0.15
Funds transfers for existence and option values
13
32
Totals
102
214


Table 3. Total Area and Number of Participants in Environmental Service Payments Programme by Year

Year
Forest Conservation
Sustainable Forest Management
Reforestation
Has.
No of landowners
Has.
No of landowners
Has.
No of landowners
1995
23,683
423
--
--
--

199731
94,484
1,058
8,449
88
4,782
462
1998
46,391
762
8,663
88
4,470
333
Totals
164,558
2,243
17,112
151
9,252
795
[Check number of landowners]

From a conservation perspective, FONAFIFO provides market-based incentives to conserve natural forest ecosystems. These economic incentives help maintain habitats that are critical to a rich, globally important biodiversity and they have the potential to help to maintain biological corridors linking protected areas. Approaching biodiversity conservation through the FONAFIFO mechanism is akin to the system of conservation easements that are widely used in the United States and European countries. In 1997 and 1998, US$15 million were disbursed by FONAFIFO through the ESP programme for the conservation and sustainable use of privately-owned forests; since 1995, over 190,000 hectares of forests have been incorporated into the programme (Table 3) at a cost of approximately US$47 million.

In conclusion, with the introduction of a variety of forest incentives in recent years, Costa Rica has slowed the rapid pace of deforestation witnessed in the 1970s and 1980s. In terms of overall land cover, the gross area of deforestation has been counterbalanced by regrowth in 75% of the previously deforested areas, including the establishment of forest plantations and spontaneous regeneration of abandoned pasture on poor terrain especially in the Pacific slopes. While this regrowth may provide valuable environmental and economic services, it should be noted that, in terms of biodiversity values, it is not equivalent to lost primary forest.


Lessons learned for the next phase of the project

One of the most important lessons learned from activities associated with the projects within the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor is the importance of involving local populations and institutions (e.g. local government, community and sectoral organizations, NGOs) in the design, implementation and benefits of the project in order to assure the long-term conservation of the biodiversity outside protected areas. The project supports the inclusion of small landowners in the ESP programME and technical support for NGOs to provide assistance to small landowners and rural women’s organizations relating to forest conservation and sustainable resource management.

A World Bank review of deforestation in Costa Rica carried out in the early 1990s identified three principal types of forest intervention in Costa Rica:

(a) clear cutting to change the use of lands under forest cover;

(b) selective cutting of large, valuable trees in primary or secondary forest;

(c) exploitation by owners of pasture areas that contain patches of forest.

The study confirmed that clear-cutting and selective logging are driven by economic interests. While loggers do play an important role, the main motivation for these processes comes from landowners who wish to obtain revenue from the sale of timber or who wish to use the land for agriculture, or both. Environmental concerns tend not to be taken into account by the owners when they are not related to on-site productivity. Hence, the introduction of economic incentives is required where the maintenance of forest ecosystems is considered of importance for the country.



The experience of projects throughout the MBC with buffer zone communities indicates the importance of:

(a) clearly defining the roles of the project and the communities in project administration, fund management, decision-making, and implementation in order to avoid creating false expectations or leaving ambiguities which cause implementation delays;

(b) providing for a strong administrative and coordination capacity supported by adequate technical assistance and, initially, close implementation supervision; and

(c) establishing clear linkages between conservation and development activities.



Phase 2: project summary
Project aims

The next phase of the project will be supported by GEF (World Bank). It aims to increase the production of environmental services in Costa Rica by supporting the development of markets and private sector providers for services supplied by privately owned forests, including protection of biological diversity, greenhouse gas mitigation and provision of hydrological services. As such, the project will support the implementation of environmental policies in the forest sector and contribute to sustainable human development. Additionally, the project will strengthen offices within the Ministry of Environment and Energy (MINAE) as well as local and regional non-governmental organizations (especially women’s organizations) responsible for the execution, promotion, supervision and monitoring of the forest conservation programme.

Costa Rica’s pioneering efforts to achieve environmental goals through the sustainable use of forest ecosystems entails developing commercially viable activities, which are based upon the environmental services provided from the nation’s forests. The project will assist in developing markets, attracting financing and investment and consolidating the institutional framework for:

(a) marketing global environmental services relating to the conservation of biodiversity in privately owned buffer zones surrounding protected areas, thereby protecting the Costa Rican portion of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor;

(b) marketing global environmental services relating to the mitigation of greenhouse gases, through the development of forestry projects promoting carbon sequestration;

(c) marketing local environmental services provided by forest ecosystems relating to protection of water quality and dry season stream flows in watersheds where hydroelectric projects are presently operating or planned.

Key policy and institutional reforms to be sought

The project will assist in mainstreaming Costa Rica’s environmental policies into the forestry sector. With respect to Forestry Law No. 7575, the project will support the contracting of conservation easements for a period of twenty years under Article 22. To date, FONAFIFO has only contracted conservation easements under Article 69, for a period of five years. Under GEF co-financed conservation easements in Tortuguero, La Amistad Caribe and Osa Peninsula, these areas will have a contractual obligation of twenty years. In return for this commitment on the part of small- and medium-sized landowners in these three Conservation Areas, these landowners will receive highest priority for contracts for conservation easements. Furthermore, the Government of Costa Rica is committed to seek continued financing for these conservation easements throughout their twenty-year life.
Benefits and target population

The project should:

(a) empower small- and medium-scale private land owners in the conservation and management of forest ecosystems and in making choices that contribute to sustainable development;

(b) support the long-term viability of the ESP programme and promote increased institutional efficiency of FONAFIFO, SINAC, local NGOs promoting biodiversity conservation, and private sector associations; and

(c) benefit regional users of hydrological services by supporting the provision of high water quality and hydrological stability from forest ecosystems.

Important project benefits include the conservation and sustainable use of forest ecosystems in privately owned land outside protected areas. Replication of programme activities in other countries, including development of markets and private sector providers for environmental services, could further expand project benefits.

-----------



* UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/7/1.

1 Although there are caveats to the forest data provided by the FAO in the Forest Resource Assessment 2000 based on definitions, sampling techniques and unclear linkages to forest biological diversity (Stokstad, 2001; Matthews, 2001), these data provide a necessary background for understanding global forest change and decline.

2 Assessing forest ecosystem diversity requires meaningful systems of classification of forests. Useful systems have usually been developed at national and regional levels, but are increasingly difficult to generate as the geographical scale increases, and are problematic at the global scale. FAO’s Forest Resource Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000) is addressing this issue through a combination of remote sensing data and eco-regional classifications.

3 This particular analysis collectively under-represents the protection of biomes by about 30% because information was not available on the particular biome represented in many protected areas.

4 http://www.wcmc.org.uk/forest/data/cdrom2/gtabs.htm

5 According to Filipchuk 2001 amount of protected nature area is about 5% of the Russian forest area. The State Natural Reserves (zapovedniks) totaled 33.5 million hectares at the beginning 2001.

6 Much of the discussion of temperate forests is taken from Ovington (1983) and Schulze et al. (1996) and these serve as references for all statements.

7 Not all Bromeliaceae are epiphytes; Cactaceae, Rubiaceae and Asclepiadaceae are not primarily epiphytes.

8 On the meaning of “threatened” see the 1994 IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. IUCN. 1994. IUCN Red List Categories. Prepared by the IUCN Species Survival Commission. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Available at: http://iucn.org/themes/ssc/redlists/ssc-rl-c.htm

9 Adapted from: Table 2: Summary of the number of tree species assessed according to the 1994 IUCN threat categories for inclusion in The World List of Threatened Trees. (Oldfield, 1998, p. 17.)

10 The values shown also reflect local market conditions and there is no reason why prices will be similar in the different locations, e.g. because incomes vary significantly.

11 And could be estimated from the current rates of loss of forest cover.

12 However it should be noted that current actual prices are often significantly less than this, and there are considerable political, legal, economic, social and technical obstacles to ensuring that the benefits of carbon sequestration are shared equitably.

13 Although natural factors (e.g. glaciations) can contribute to the destruction or degradation of forest ecosystems, in most cases, natural occurrences, such as fires, storms, volcanic eruptions, or insect outbreaks, do not destroy forests; they can even be part of their regeneration patterns. However, it is becoming more and more difficult to distinguish between natural and human induced factors. For instance, factors such as climate change (human induced) could contribute to an increase in the number and intensity of such so called ‘natural’ factors.

14 There are also some important feedback effects working in the opposite direction.

15 Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten, 2000: “Nationales Forstprogramm Deutschland

16 see: The Swedish FSC Working Group 1998: “Swedish FSC Standard for Forest Certification, May 5, 1998, English version, http://www.fsc-sweden.org/gron/Swedish%20FSC-standard1.html

17See: http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/J_Kuper/prosilva.htm

18 As requested by COP, in its decision V/4, paragraph 14, the issue of impact of, and proposed sustainable practices for, the harvesting of non-timber forest products, including bush meat and living botanical resources will be addressed in-depth in a separate document for SBSTTA 7.

19 One of the documented species extinctions: Santalum fernandezianum from Juan Fernandez islands. [reference].

20 A recent study (Laurence et al., 2001) reveals that the dozens of major new highways and infrastructure projects, in which the Brazilian government plans to invest $40 billion from 2000 to 2007, would lead to the destruction or heavy damage of 28-42% of the Amazon forest. The Brazilian government estimates that a maximum of 25% of the forest would be destroyed or damaged.

21 United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development acting as the preparatory committee for the World Summit on Sustainable Development Organizational Session New York, 30 April-2 May 2001: Report of the Secretary-General on Changing Consumption Patterns. (E/CN.17/2001/PC8)

22 The main elements of these policies are: correction of fiscal imbalances mainly through reductions in public expenditure; reduction of the role of the state in managing the economy; promotion of privatization; removal of obstacles to international capital flows and the formation and expansion of national capital markets; liberalization of exchange policies; removal of destructive trade policies; and deregulation of labor markets (World Bank. 1990. Adjustment lending: Policies for sustainable growth. Washington, D.C.)

23 see : Panel on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth in the Congo, UN Security Council Report S/2001/357

24 Philippines had 50% of its primary forests left in 1946, but less than 3% of primary forest, with another 15% of secondary forest, remains. Lack of good governance is one factor for the decline [reference].

25 Forest Resources Assessment (FRA, 2000), managed by FAO Forestry Department, reports information on the extent and condition of forests for the entire world using several sources, including existing forest inventory data. Inventory data are being standardized to a common classification system and reference year, viz. 2000, in order to make the figures comparable between countries. This work was carried out in close co-operation with the respective countries. As part of FRA 2000, FAO and appropriate regional institutions also used satellite remote sensing to study changes in forest cover. By interpreting a global, multi-date, objectively selected sample of about 10,000 satellite images conclusions were drawn as to the type and degree of changes in the world's forest cover over the last two decades. These studies constitute the primary source of information on the rate of deforestation, forest fragmentation and land degradation, including statistically significant information at the subregional (ecological zone) level, and provide insights into the causes of forest loss. The results of FRA 2000, including country profiles, synthesis reports and global maps, is available on the FAO Web Site and as printed reports (in press). Country profiles provide a comprehensive presentation of forest resources, including a general description of geography and the ecological setting; forest status in terms of coverage, volume and biomass, protection status and other parameters; an assessment of trends; and the sources and baseline data used. FRA 2000 reports synthesize regional and global overviews of forest status, including results from the remote sensing survey and the special studies. New global maps, with a resolution of 1 km, are presented for show forest cover, ecological zones and deforestation risks.

26 In order to qualify as globally threatened on the basis of population reduction, the total population of the species had to experience ≥ 20% reduction (either observed, estimated, inferred or suspected) over the past 10 years or three generations.

27 9% is likely to be an underestimate given the inadequate knowledge for many tropical tree species and gaps in the WMCM database.

28 Fröhlich and Hyde (1999) estimate the ratio of host specific-fungal species to be in the range of 26 to 33 per tropical palm species. Erwin found 1,100 species of beetle from a single tropical tree (Luehea seemannii) and estimated that 600 arthropod species are specific to each tropical tree species (see May, 1986). Each of the 900 Ficus species is pollinated by a different wasp species (Janzen, 1979).

29 Furthermore the Pan-European Operational Level Guidelines (PEOLG) for SFM were endorsed.

30 Locally in Malaysia and South-east Asia, secondary forests refer to highly degraded forests; this is not the intent of the term in this document.

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For reasons of economy, this document is printed in a limited number. Delegates are kindly requested to bring their copies to meetings and not to request additional copies


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