Convention on biological diversity
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I.Broader macroeconomic, political and social causesPopulation growth and densityAnother billion people are likely to be added to the world population for each of the next three decades. This population increase will occur mainly in developing countries, creating a strong demand for agricultural lands, forest products and “forest crops” (cocoa, coffee, bananas, etc.). To meet the associated food demand, crop yields will need to increase consistently, by over 2% every year through this period (Walker and Steffen, 1997). While possible responses to the food supply issue may be improvements in technology, better distribution of food purchasing possibilities, better nutritional education and health care, it is likely that the most immediate response will be converting more forest ecosystems to agricultural land. However, it is important to mention that the link between forest decline and population pressure remains unclear due to the complexity of the factors involved (see example in Box 7). Most studies indicate a positive relationship between population and deforestation, but most analysts are also very careful to indicate that there are other factors that obscure this linkage. For example, many authors note that loggers first make the forests accessible and then settlers occupy lands. If this is the case, then population density is the result of logging and associated initial deforestation or forest degradation, not the other way around. In addition, unless reliable information on the changes in forest cover is available, it is difficult to see the links clearly (CIFOR, 2000). At the global level, it is obvious that the enormous and still increasing demand for forest resources (timber, paper, etc) by developed countries, which do not now face population growth, is another cause of forest loss (see section on globalisation). [see comments, is this true, e.g. in the light of increasing importance of plantations?]
GlobalisationAt present, a fifth of the world’s population uses 85% of its resources. The globalisation of trade and these demands from the developed world for paper, timber, minerals and energy provide the incentive to exploit natural resources in the developing world. The financial and political power of large companies adds dramatically to pressures in forest ecosystems that had previously been too remote to attract attention, such as some of Central African’s rain forests and the taiga in far-eastern Russia. In addition, the global exchange economy is based on principles of comparative advantage and specialisation and has increased in both uniformity and interdependence. In forest areas, the rapid and total conversion of forests into monocultural cash crops is widespread. But when the price of palm oil, coffee or cocoa drops, the plantation cannot quickly revert to the biologically diverse forest that preceded it, even if left alone. This is particularly the case where large-scale clearing has occurred, e.g. in south Sumatran oil palm plantations. If environmental and social externalities (costs and benefits) are not internalised then market prices do not reflect true social values, causing allocative inefficiency. Where externalities are not internalised [should be said in a simpler way, e.g. giving explanation for externalities etc. in a footnote?], the increased economic growth from liberalised trade and investment will serve only to exacerbate rather than address environmental problems, especially in those countries that depend on the export of natural resources – e.g. forest products. The liberalisation of exchange and trade policies can improve the terms for agriculture expansion and therefore promote the clearance of forest for agricultural crops. The solution is to correct market distortions through sound environmental and sustainable development policies and, in addition, measures identified to ensure conservation and sustainable use of FBD must be implemented before bilateral and multilateral trade agreements. International trade, investment, debt and technology transfer issues foster inequity between developed and developing countries that resemble or often reinforce those found within countries. For example, most export credit agencies and investment agencies, which finance numerous development projects, are not subject to environmental or social guidelines or standards that would ensure that they don’t contribute to ecologically or socially harmful projects. Another effect of globalisation is the increasing activity of transnational logging companies. These activities result in an expansion of destructive logging operations, violation of indigenous rights and, sometimes, widespread corruption. Most of the new investment focuses on short-term activities and the economic benefits to the exporting country are usually very low. In addition, the forests are often mined rather than managed, resulting in high levels of damage and increased access to previously untouched areas (Sizer and Plouvier, 2000). PovertyPoverty is both a consequence and an underlying cause of forest decline. The case of Haiti is just one of many examples showing how total deforestation, followed by soil erosion has deprived rural populations of their basis for livelihood [Reference needed]. Poverty often leads to deforestation and forest degradation. Poor people are frequently forced to slash and burn or otherwise degrade forests in response to population growth, economic marginalisation and environmental degradation. However, linkages between the rural poor and the forest resources they draw upon are complex and poverty does not necessarily lead to forest decline. Many poor people are able to adopt protective mechanisms through collective action which reduces the impacts of demographic, economic and environmental changes. Unsustainable production and consumption patternsAgenda 21 notes that the major cause of the continued deterioration of the global environment is the unsustainable pattern of consumption and production, particularly in industrialised countries. It further notes that while consumption is very high in certain parts of the world, the basic consumer needs of a large section of humanity are not being met. Changing consumption patterns towards sustainable development will require a multi-pronged strategy focusing on meeting basic needs and improving the quality of life, while reorienting consumer demand towards sustainably produced goods and services. Per capita consumption increased as real gross domestic product (GDP) grew at 2.9% per year while population growth was 1.4% per year. A closer look at economic trends, however, shows large disparities between and within regions. As noted in the UN Human Development Report (1998) [reference needed], 20% of the world’s population, in the high-income countries, account for 86 per cent of total private consumption expenditures, while the poorest 20 per cent, in low-income countries, consume a mere 1.3%. Annual consumption per capita in industrialised countries has increased steadily at about 2.3% over the past 25 years, it has increased very rapidly in East Asia at about 6.1%, and at a rising rate in South Asia at around 2.0%. On the other hand, the consumption expenditure of the average African household is 20% less than it was 25 years ago (UN, 2001)21. The effects of these consumption patterns on forest biodiversity need to be analyzed further. Inappropriate application of structural adjustment policiesStructural adjustment policies (SAPs)22 are very often the major element for developing countries and countries in transition to develop economic growth and regain macroeconomic stability and are in many cases imposed by international financial assistance such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. If governments fail to implement mutually supporting policies, SAPs can have disastrous effects on the forests as they often provide an impetus to mine natural resources in order to meet demands for foreign exchange and to service dept payments (WWF, 2000). The reduction of public expenditure, the reduction of the role of government and the promotion of privatisation can reduce the capacity of the forest authority to enforce forest protection laws and this will open the forest for quick profit seeking private companies. The liberalisation of exchange and trade policies can improve the terms for agricultural expansion and thereby promote the clearance of forests for agricultural crops. SAPs have often been designed without careful analysis of their full potential negative impact on forests or important supportive measures have not been implemented. However, the impact of SAPs are country specific, sometimes SAPs have not lead to forest decline and a general conclusion as to the effect of SAPs on forest decline cannot be made (Contreras-Hermosilla, 2000). Political unrest and warOne of the most important waves of large-scale forest destruction in Europe, occurring from the 15th to the 17th century, was due to the need for wood for military ship building. At the same time, dwindling wood resources for the navy prompted a number of forest protection, conservation, restoration and management measures in a number of European countries that present generations still benefit from. There is clear evidence that armed conflicts or political instabilities still correlate with an accelerated rate of forest destruction. Cambodia, Congo, Indonesia, Laos, Liberia and Sierra Leone are just a few of the countries where forests are logged for quick cash needed to purchasing military weapons and where the authorities have lost control over natural resources enabling specific actors such as the army to deplete the forests, either illegally or legally. A recent report23 commissioned by the UN Security Council on the illegal exploitation of natural resources and other forms of wealth in the Democratic Republic of Congo demonstrates that illegal logging is linked to armed conflicts and suggests concrete measures to reduce trade in so-called “conflict timber”. Forests are also being destroyed (e.g. by herbicides) in order to eradicate sheltering places for guerrilla forces. In addition, armed conflicts cause increasing pressure on non-timber forest products, particularly bush meat for food for either the armed forces or populations that have been forced to move from the conflict areas, such as in Central Africa. This is putting some already threatened species , e.g. gorillas (see Box 1 in Chapter 4), in a very dangerous situation. On the other hand, creating military security zones has in many areas left larger areas outside economic activities. In future, many of these areas may be suitable for designation as protected areas. |