Gcse ancient History
|
|  Yüklə 2.8 Mb.
|
Velleius Paterculus on Cleopatra’s effect on Antony His love for Cleopatra was now burning all the more and his vices getting greater; these vices were always fed by his love of power, by the luxury he liked and the flattery from those around him. As a result, he decided now to wage war on his own country. Veleius Paterculus 2.82
3.4 Cleopatra’s Suicide Antony’s death After Antony and Cleopatra were finally defeated by Octavian, Cleopatra sent Antony a message that she was dead. Antony then tried to kill himself. Then with his infantry defeated, he retreated into the city, crying out that Cleopatra had betrayed him to men with whom he waged war for her sake. However, she, fearing his anger when so out of his mind, fled for safety into her tomb; then she sent messengers to Antony to say that she was dead. Antony believed this. Antony had with him a faithful slave named Eros. Antony had sometime before encouraged him, if it was necessary, to kill him, and he now asked him to keep his promise. So Eros drew his sword and held it as if he was about to strike him, but then turned his face away and killed himself. He fell at his master's feet and Antony said: "Well done, Eros! Although you could not do what needed to be done, you did teach me what I must do"; then he struck himself through the belly and fell on the bed. He did not die at once from this wound. The blood stopped flowing once he lay down. He came round and begged those nearby to strike a second blow. But they fled from the room while he was lying there crying out in pain, until Diomedes the secretary came from Cleopatra with orders to bring him to her in the tomb. Plutarch Life of Antony 76 Antony is taken to Cleopatra’s mausoleum where he is hauled up in a stretcher. He probably died soon after. Cleopatra was allowed to attend his funeral (Plutarch 82). Octavian meanwhile, according to Plutarch (79), was worried that Cleopatra would destroy the wealth she had stored in her Mausoleum. She was eventually taken prisoner but managed to arrange her suicide despite being watched. First she tried starving herself to death but Octavian threatened her children and this forced her to stop. Cleopatra’s reasons for killing herself Dear Antony, I buried you recently with free hands; now, however, I make my offerings for you as a prisoner, and guarded so that I cannot disfigure my body either with blows or tears; my body is now the body of a slave; I am watched so that I can be used to celebrate the triumph over you. Do not expect any more honours or libations; these are the last that Cleopatra the captive will bring. While we lived nothing could keep us apart, but in dying we must change places; you, the Roman, are buried here; I, the unfortunate woman, will be buried in Italy, gaining only enough of your country for a burial in exchange. But if there is any strength or power in the gods of Rome (for the gods of Egypt have betrayed us), do not abandon your own wife while she still lives; do not allow me to be included in the triumph over you. But hide me here and bury me with yourself, because out of all the terrible evils that have happened to me, none has been so great or so terrible as living apart from you for even this brief time. Plutarch Life of Antony 84
Horace also gives us an account of her death: But she sought a nobler way to die; she did not, like most women, fear the sword, nor did she escape on a swift ship to some secret shore where she could hide. She dared to look upon her defeated palace calmly and bravely held onto the bitter snakes so that her body might drink their black poison. Determined to die, she became even more fierce; she had no intention, although no longer a queen, to be brought in ships to Rome, and led in a proud triumph, for she was not some obscure, ordinary woman Horace Odes 1.37
After Cleoparta’s death Octavian, although angry at the death of this woman, admired her noble spirit; and he ordered that her body should be buried with that of Antony in with all royal splendour appropriate to a Queen. Her maid-servants were also given honourable burials. Plutarch Life of Antony 86
Theme: Cleopatra’s relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony and their political significance 4.1 Caesar, Cleopatra and Caesarion In the relationship between Caesar and Cleopatra, it is important to keep in mind that both of them were intelligent and determined politicians whose main aims were always to preserve themselves and their power. They would also be concerned to protect the interests of their own countries. it is important to consider this: if Caesar had felt that Cleopatra was not up to the task of helping Rome and preserving Rome’s (and his) interests in Egypt and the East, no matter what he felt about her, he would have abandoned her and found some one else. Cleopatra, also, was aware that, in 48 BC, Caesar was the source of power and without his support she was likely to be killed by her enemies. She knew he would soon leave, and she would probably never see him again. Before he left, he and Cleopatra cruised down the Nile, despite the pressing problems in Rome and the Empire. For Cleopatra this displayed her as the Queen of Egypt beyond the city of Alexandria, and the support she had from Caesar. Shortly after Caesar left Cleopatra gave birth to her son, Caesarion, or Ptolemy Caesar. Throughout his life Cleopatra made Caesarion a very important part of her plans. In 44 BC when he was three, and Ptolemy XIV had died, she made a point of sharing the throne with him. Later in the Donations which Antony handed out to their children, Caesarion was given kingdoms and title’King of Kings’. What was the importance of Caesarion to Cleopatra? Indeed M. Antonius confirmed to the senate that he had been acknowledged by him and that C. Matius and C. Oppius knew this along with the rest of Caesar’s friends. Of them Oppius, on the grounds that this matter needed some explanation and defence, published a book saying that he was not Caesar’s son as Cleopatra claims. Suetonius The Divine Julius 52 Relief portraits of Cleopatra and Caesarion from the temple of Dendera, British Museum http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Denderah3_Cleopatra_Cesarion.jpg (Southern . P. Cleopatra page 47 Ill. 9) Coin showing Cleopatra and Caesarion http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/cm/b/bronze_coin_of_cleopatra.aspx
After Cleopatra’s death, her children and their servants were guarded closely but otherwise were treated well. As for Caesarion, however, who was said to be Cleopatra's son by Julius Caesar, he was sent by his mother with a very large amount of money through Ethiopia to India. Another tutor Rhodon, a man much like Theodorus, persuaded him to return, claiming that Octavian was calling him back to be King of Egypt. However, they say that, while Octavian was considering this, Areius said: “It is not a good thing to have many Caesars.” So he was killed by Octavian but after the death of Cleopatra. Plutarch Life of Antony 81-82 Task 4B Why did Octavian treat Caesarion differently from the other children? 4.2 Cleopatra in Rome 46-44 BC When Caesar left Egypt to deal with Pharnaces, King of Pontus, whom he defeated at the battle of Zela, Cleopatra built the Caesareum near the harbour at Alexandria. In front of the building were two obelisks, now known as ‘Cleopatra’s Needles’. One of these now stands on the bank of the Thames. The Caesareum was intended to keep the name of Caesar in the minds of the Egyptians and to emphasise the succession of her son, Caesarion, supported by Rome. In 46 BC, therefore, she went to Rome to see that her position as ruler was formally agreed by the Senate, becoming a friend and ally of the Roman People. Caesar would not always be there to protect her and she needed more friends and allies in Rome. The continued stability of Egypt depended on her ability to survive as an independent ruler. She could have been in Rome during Caesar’s Egyptian triumph as Arsinoe was led through streets as a captive, and then sent to the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, rather than being executed as was normal for captured enemies. She stayed in one of Caesar’s houses on the banks of the Tiber. She must have met some of the important politicians in Rome: Cicero mentions her in a letter to Atticus (Letters to Atticus 15.15) and shows his dislike of her; Mark Antony undoubtedly met her again (he had helped restore her father in 55 BC); she almost certainly met Octavian. Caesar made a great deal of her presence in Rome. He placed a statue of her in his new temple to the goddess Venus, from whom he claimed his family descended. It led to rumours that he was about to marry her and make her his co-ruler. Her presence was resented by the nobles and leading men of Rome: she was a foreigner apparently more powerful than the Romans themselves, and even worse, she was a woman.
Extracts from Cicero’s comments on meeting Cleopatra ‘I do not wish to be unfair to the graecula. She is clever beyond words, no denying it. … And of her fabled treasure: although her aides had promised a purely literary acknowledgment of my merits, I came and went empty handed. … I will not even touch upon her unfathomable impertinence. She seemed intent upon challenging my own undeserved reputation for caustic humor, while I was at pains to be most gracious, even condescending toward her. … This to a citizen of Rome! This to a guest in her house! This to a distinguished statesman! And from a woman! She is, by the way, a beauty in no way, shape, manner, or form. Her figure is anything other than voluptuous, and her face is marred not merely by the inbred Ptolemy hooked nose, but by a strong chin and hard features which detract from the sweetness and gentleness we prize in our women.’ Cicero to Atticus 15.15 4.3 Caesar’s assassination: Cleopatra leaves Rome In Februrary 44 BC Caesar had accepted the title of dictator for life. The post of Dictator was one which was used occasionally at times of crisis and difficulty. It also would be held only for a few months. There were those who were concerned at the way he had virtually taken over the Republic, and thought that he had plans to make himself king. Whatever Caesar’s plans were for his future and that of Cleopatra, some decided to act before he had the chance to develop them. On the 15th March 44 BC, he was assassinated by a group of senators and other led by Marcus Brutus and Cassius in Pompey’s Theatre at a meeting of the Senate. However, the conspirators seemed to have had very few ideas about what to do next. Caesar’s supporters probably thought that the assassins would come for them soon after. Antony shut himself up in his house. Cleopatra must have felt certain that she would be on the list to be killed. But nothing happened, and Antony was able to take control of the situation; Cleopatra may have discussed the situation with him. She was in a difficult situation; she was simply a visiting foreign Queen, whose position was unstable and who depended on Roman support and arms. If the conspirators gained the power, then they would have eliminated her and her son eventually. Octavian had been named heir to Caesar, not Caesarion which may have been what Caesar intended to do at some time. She left Rome soon afterwards unsure of what would happen. She had gained official recognition through Caesar and a formal treaty in the Senate, although she must have been unsure about what the future held. 4.4 Antony and Octavian http://www.vroma.org/~riley/augustus/portrait_stemma.gif : a family tree of Octavian When Caesar was killed, Mark Antony was consul and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus was his Master of the Horse (second in command to the dictator). This gave them both the important positions in dealing with the reaction to his death. Antony, with Lepidus’ help, took control of the troops, and Caesar’s will and money. He arranged a meeting of the Senate in the temple of Tellus, where the conspirators were guaranteed an amnesty and allowed to leave Rome for provinces. All of Caesar’s acts were to remain in force. Antony was praised for avoiding a civil war and in dealing with this difficult situation in a very sensible way (Plutarch Life of Antony 14). However, he discovered that Caesar had made Octavian his heir which probably surprised him, although he would not have considered the 18 year old teenager a problem. Still, he made the best of the situation with Caesar’s funeral. His announcement that Caesar had left 75 denarii to each citizen, and his speech, displaying Caesar’s bloodstained toga, created a riot which forced the conspirators to escape from Rome. Despite the fact that he was now in complete control of Rome, he continued to be careful in his treatment of the conspirators and respectful to the Senate, going so far as to abolish the office of dictator. All the while he was building up his power and ensuring that he kept control. He provided land for Caesar’s veterans and sent Lepidus off to Spain. He is said to have forged documents from Caesar. He arranged to have the province of the two Gauls in order to keep an eye on Italy when he left to be a governor. He also kept control of the legions in Macedonia. It was becoming clear to Cicero among others that Brutus and Cassius had made a mistake in not getting rid of Antony when they killed Caesar (Cicero to Atticus 14.12). When Octavian arrived in Rome from Apollonia, he borrowed money to pay Caesar’s legacies and arrange games when Antony refused to hand over Caesar’s property (which he had probably spent!). Antony did not allow his adoption by Caesar to be legalized. In response Octavian raised an army at his own expense from Caesar’s veterans and legions from Macedonia deserted Antony and joined him. He joined with the two consuls in their attack on Antony who was defeated twice. When both consuls died in battle, Octavian demanded the consulship although he was only nineteen, and he used his military strength to force the Senate to grant it. Instead of marching against Antony as the Senate wanted, he marched on Rome and took the consulship. He legalised his adoption and set up a court to try the assassins of Caesar. Then he made an agreement with Antony and Lepidus – which became the Second Triumvirate. Next they moved to punish the assassins in the war which resulted in the battle of Philippi in 42 BC and the deaths of Brutus and Cassius. Now the three men divided up the world. Antony married Octavia, Octavian’s sister. He received the Eastern half of the Empire and he set off for Syria to collect tax and organize the kingdoms and provinces in preparation for an invasion of Parthia. At Tarsus he met Cleopatra. 4.5 Mark Antony in the East 42 BC Antony arrives in the East: At any rate, when Antony entered Ephesus, women dressed as the followers of Bacchus, with men and boys made to look like Satyrs and Pans, led him in. The city was full of ivy-wreaths and thyrsus-wands and harps and pipes and flutes while the citizens called him Dionysus bringer of Joy and Protector. And of course he was seen like that to some, but to many others he was Dionysus Eater of raw flesh and the Savage. For he stole from the well-born men their possessions and gave it as gifts to rogues and flatterers. Some indeed took the property of others who were still alive by claiming that they were dead. He gave as a gift the house of a man from Magnesia to a cook. It is said that he did this because the cook became famous on the basis of one dinner. Finally, when he was placing a second tax on the cities, Hybreas, speaking for Asia, dared to say this: "If you are able to take the tax twice in one year, you can surely provide us with two summers and two harvests.” Plutarch Life of Antony 24
Antony had come east to continue with Caesar’s plan to invade and conquer Parthia. It was an issue for the Romans that in 53 BC Crassus had been defeated and the standards of Roman legions had been captured by the Parthians. When he arrived, after the disruption of the previous 8 years, the Eastern provinces were in no state to support such a campaign. He spent some time strengthening the states on the borders. One such kingdom was Egypt. Another was Judaea and Antony took time to establish Hyrcanus and Herod in control. He had hurried back to Italy where Octavian was having trouble with Sextus Pompeius, but when he reached Brundisium, Octavian was not there. This delayed his departure for Syria for the war with Parthia. He and Octavia had gone to Greece while Ventidius was sent to Asia against the Parthians. There Ventidius won the battle of Gindarus while Antony was on his way from Greece. (Plutarch Life of Antony 33) Ventidius however, decided not to pursue the Parthians any further, because he feared the jealousy of Antony; but he moved against those who had revolted and defeated them. He besieged Antiochus of Commagené in the city of Samosata. When Antiochus asked permission to pay a thousand talents and do as Antony commanded, Ventidius told him to send his offer to Antony. Antony himself was now quite near, and would not allow Ventidius to make peace-terms with Antiochus. He wanted at least this one achievement to be in his name, and not everything credited to Ventidius. Plutarch Life of Antony 34
Antony now revises the kingdoms of the area. Galatia was given to Amyntas and Pontus was handed over to Polemo. This again shows Antony was keen to establish safe and stable client kings in charge. He had managed to make a successful organization of the Eastern Empire. The next year (37 BC) he is again delayed by request for help from Octavian. He travels to Italy and eventually comes to an agreement at Tarentum. On his way back to the east he decides to send the pregnant Octavia back to Rome. His treatment of Octavia is one of the factors used by Octavian against Antony. He now met Cleopatra at Antioch with the two children Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. However, they say that all this preparation and power, which frightened even the Indians beyond Bactria and caused all of Asia to shake with fear, was of no use to Antony because of Cleopatra. He was so eager to spend the winter with her that he began the war too early in the season for campaigning, and then made such a mess of his management of the campaign. He was not in control of his own judgement, but he behaved as though influenced by some drug or magic spell; he was always looking in her direction, always thinking about how fast he could return to her rather than how best to defeat the enemy. Plutarch Life of Antony 37 4.6 The rivalry between Antony and Octavian Aureus showing Antony and Octavian http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antony_with_Octavian_aureus.jpg
|