Gcse ancient History
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Useful websites: http://www.roman-empire.net/army/cannae.html http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/C/carthage/chronology.html http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/C/carthage/find_out_more.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal Unit A033: Women in ancient politics Option 1: Cleopatra and her impact on Roman politics, 69–30 BC Context: The expansion of Rome into Egypt 1.1 Dynasty of the Ptolemies in Egypt The Ptolemies were not Egyptian. The family was Greek from Macedonia, descended from one of Alexander’s generals, Ptolemy, who had taken over Egypt on Alexander’s death in 323 BC. He had chosen perhaps the wealthiest and most secure of the areas which Alexander’s generals acquired. It had a well-established agricultural system and organization, minerals and semi-precious stones in the mountainous areas, a people used to being ruled by a god-king, and natural defences on at least three sides and the fortress at Pelusium to guard the fourth. Maps of Ancient Egypt: http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/egypt/maps/mainmap.html http://homepages.tcp.co.uk/~nicholson/egypt/nilemap.html http://www.unc.edu/awmc/downloads/aegyptusPtolSml.jpg Ptolemy I reigned until 282 BC and died at the age of 85. he had established Egypt as a major power in the Mediterranean with control of Cyprus and parts of the Eastern Mediterranean coastline. Perhaps his most famous legacy is the Library of Alexandria. He had the next two Ptolemies maximize the economic potential of Egypt and systemize the farming of the land. One reason why they were accepted by the Egyptians was that they participated in the religious aspects of kingship and continued the god-Pharaoh style of ruling, to the extent that inter-marriage within the family was accepted. Ptolemy’s son, Philadelphus, married his sister, Arsinoe, and were represented in art as the gods Osiris and Isis. This is also seen in the time of Cleopatra and Antony. However, later Ptolemies became corrupt and brutal. Ptolemy IV killed his father, Ptolemy VIII killed his nephew to become king, then married his niece, who killed his first wife, and was herself killed by the first wife’s son. Ptolemy X killed his mother to become ruler. Ptolemy XI was supported by Sulla, the Roman general who was fighting a war in the Middle East during the 80s BC. He had married his step-mother, Berenice, only to have her killed. The Egyptian people reacted violently to both this and having a ruler set up by the Romans. They dragged him from the palace and killed him. However, he left his kingdom to the Roman People in his will, making Ptolemy XII Auletes depend upon the Romans for his survival. While Rome was not concerned to add Egypt to their Empire and the Egyptians did not like the idea of joining the Roman Empire, the Egyptians still asked the Romans to arbitrate between rival claims to the throne. This meant that Egypt’s rulers sought the support of a strong and powerful politician in Rome. They would become the client of an important patron who would, in theory and usually for money, look after their interests.
1.2 Ptolemy Auletes 115 BC- 51 BC Cleopatra’s father was Ptolemy XII Auletes (the Flute-player). He became ruler (pharaoh) of Egypt in 80 BC. His daughter, Berenice, was born in 76 BC, and Cleopatra in 70/69 BC. His sons, Ptolemy Xiii and Ptolemy XIV, were born in 61 BC and 59 BC. Carving showing Ptolemy XII smashing enemies with a mace http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PtolSmash_212.jpg Relief from the first pylon in the temple at Edfu Ptolemy XII Auletes is generally considered to have been weak and corrupt, and not at all like he is represented in the reliefs of him. Coin of Ptolemy Auletes, British Museum http://virtualreligion.net/iho/ptolemy_12.html The coin (Southern page 16 Illustration No. 1) from the British Museum represents him as typically Greek, following the image of Alexander the Great. In Egyptian reliefs he is seen as a typical pharaoh in keeping with the Ptolemies way of taking on the role acceptable to the Egyptians. Further examples of coins of Ptolemy XII http://www.snible.org/coins/bmc/ptolemies/29.html
His benefactor among the Romans was Pompey the Great who in 63 BC had won a war against Mithridates and was completing a re-organisation of the provinces of the East. Ptolemy sent Pompey a crown of gold and an invitation to visit Egypt. Pompey took the crown but did not accept the invitation. Roman politicians had been casting a greedy eye on Egypt for some time and Ptolemy knew that he needed a wealthy and powerful patron if he was to survive. Crassus and Julius Caesar had already, in 65 BC, tried to persuade the Senate and people of Rome to add Egypt to the Empire, hoping to use the wealth of Egypt for popularity and even resources against Pompey. In 59 BC, he persuaded Caesar by means of 6000 talents to pass a law recognizing Ptolemy as the King of Egypt. However, it did not work because in 58 BC he was forced to flee from Egypt to Rome when the Alexandrians rose against him. This was due to the heavy taxes needed to pay the bribes and his close association with Rome. His daughter Berenice IV took control in Egypt. The economy had declined; agricultural land was abandoned by peasants rather than paying the taxes, the coinage had been devalued; necessary work had not been done on the infrastructure and the cost of living had risen a great deal. Ptolemy stayed in Pompey’s villa in Rome and was basically Pompey’s client, owing to Pompey his position as ruler of Egypt. The Senate in 57 BC agreed that Rome’s interests were for Ptolemy to be returned as King to Egypt but no one wanted Pompey to have the glory and wealth of restoring him. In fact Crassus made sure that Pompey could not take on the task. Finally in 55 BC, with Pompey’s help, Ptolemy bribed (at a cost of 10,000 talents) the governor of Syria, Aulus Gabinius, to return him to Egypt. Declaring war on Berenice and Archelaus, King of Pontus, whom Berenice had married, Gabinius led Ptolemy back to Egypt, where he immediately had Berenice and her supporters executed. Cleopatra was now the eldest of the surviving children, although only 14 years old. She may also have met Mark Antony now, since he led the cavalry in the capture of Pelusium. Supported now by the presence of Roman soldiers in Egypt, Ptolemy XII Auletes reigned until spring of 51 BC. It seems that Cleopatra may have ruled jointly with Ptolemy for a short period before his death, and perhaps, alone after his death until she and her 10 year old brother Ptolemy XIII were declared co-rulers of Egypt. She inherited an Egypt which was weak and dependent on Roman patrons, who were exploiting Egypt for financial and political advantages. 1.3 A note on Client Kings The system of patron and client was well established in Rome. This system tied two people together in terms of helping each other when it was needed. They had obligations towards each other. Perhaps the most common form was the relationship between an ex-slave (freedman or woman) and their former master. The freed man or woman had certain duties to perform for the ex-master while he or she had some responsibilities towards the ex-slave. Many poorer Romans found this helpful, even to the point of getting food, hand-outs of money and jobs from their patrons. The patrons used these clients for financial or political advantages, especially at election time. The system ran right through every level of society, so that even an important politician such as Mark Antony relied on others, such as Julius Caesar, who might advance his career or provide him with opportunities. Client Kings were similar. They were clients of the Roman state rather than individuals, although as with Ptolemy and Pompey, that was not always obvious. They were also part of the frontier areas which made them important to Rome’s security. They were expected to keep their kingdom peaceful and secure. They needed to control the activities of the peoples, especially those who might take part in piracy and robbery. Rome’s obligation in this relationship was to support them in their kingdom – often that was keeping them in power while the Romans did not interfere too much in local politics. Auletes gained a garrison of Roman soldiers from Gabinius. In the Empire, after Augustus, financial aid might be provided, such as that to Herod. In return client kings provided resources when needed. This usually amounted to armed men, supplies, money, strategic positions, local knowledge, contacts, ad hoc payments on demand and war-indemnities. For the Romans it had the benefit of having some control without having to use soldiers and resources to police the state, while they still could exercise some influence over especially foreign policy. For the king and his subjects, it meant that Rome did not impose her rule, taxes, way of life or demands on the kingdom. Cicero, as governor of the province of Cilicia in 51-50 BC, dealt with client kings Deiotarus and Brogitarus when Parthia threatened the province, just as Antony was to use client kings in his wars with the Parthians 20 years later. Deiotarus brought two legions to Cicero, and later sided with Pompey in the Civil War against Caesar. These kings were often given the title of Friends and Allies of the Roman People. However, Rome considered these allies to be in a sense part of the Empire, and it was not unknown for the Romans to take over the kingdom because there was more benefit from direct rule. This had happened in Cyprus in 58 BC when Clodius annexed the island and removed Ptolemy Auletes’ brother from the throne. Plutarch describes how the Kings of the East rushed to gain the patronage of Antony when he first came to the east after the death of Julius Caesar: Then he left behind Lucius Censorinus in charge of Greece. He went across to Asia and took possession of the wealth there. Kings waited at his door. The wives of kings competed with one another with their gifts and using their beauty, allowed themselves to be seduced by him. Plutarch Antony 24
Plutarch Antony 62 These kings were looking for rewards for their help – perhaps some addition to their kingdom, perhaps support against a rival, or perhaps even just the idea that if they did not help and Antony won, they would not last long as king! Theme: Development of Egypt under Ptolemy Auletes and Cleopatra 2.1 Julius Caesar and Civil War 49 BC- 44 BC At the time of the birth of Cleopatra, much of the Mediterranean World was either governed by Rome or under the control of the Romans. During the 60s BC Pompey added and organized the provinces of the East and settled client kings in place. During the 50s BC Caesar added Gaul (France and Belgium). He also made two attempts to add Britain to the Empire. The result was that in 49 BC the Empire stretched from the River Rhine south to the Alps and across to the Black Sea in the north. In the East the area included lands between the Black Sea and Egypt, while much of the northern coast of Africa was Roman. Maps of the Roman Empire at this time http://www.roman-empire.net/maps/map-empire.html http://www.history.com/maps.do?type=view&catId=174&letter=R&mapId=1159
During these two decades Rome was dominated by three politicians/generals. One of these, Publius Licinius Crassus, said to be the wealthiest man in Rome, died in 53 BC attempting a conquest of Parthia. The remaining two, Pompey and Julius Caesar, fought over the spoils of the Empire in a Civil War which started in 49 BC. Pompey was defeated by Caesar at the battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Escaping to Egypt, where he expected support, he was murdered by Pothinus and Achillas, the agents of the young king Ptolemy XIII. When Caesar arrived in Egypt, he was given Pompey’s head, Instead of leaving, as the Egyptians expected, he stayed and began the first real involvement of Rome with the Egyptians, one in particular, Cleopatra. Although Pompey was dead, the civil war was not over, Caesar still had battles to fight in Alexandria (see Julius Caesar and Cleopatra), at Zela in Syria, at Thapsus in Africa and at Munda in Spain. Only then, on March 17th 45 BC after the victory at Munda, was the issue settled and Rome was controlled by a single man. He was given the title dictator later that year. This was the end of over three decades of individual Romans struggling for power and using the resources of the Empire to do so. Cleopatra grew up, therefore, well aware that survival meant the support of this super power; and as the power slowly came into the hands of one man rather than the Senate or the People of Rome, it was the support of this one man she needed to survive. 2.2 The expansion of Egypt under Cleopatra: gifts of Caesar and Antony. Cleopatra was clearly intent upon regaining as far as possible the old Ptolemaic possessions and extending Egyptian control to the Eastern Mediterranean. She focused Egyptian policy on ensuring the continued wealth of Egypt and adding to the trading opportunities. Caesar had already returned Cyprus to Egypt. From Antony, she got control of the important ports along the coast of Phoenicia (Lebanon) and Syria. She gained harbours in Cilicia (S. Turkey). She managed to gain control of the balsam trade in Judaea from Herod (whom she had helped when he escaped the Parthians). In 37 BC when Antony returned to the East he handed over a number of territories. These were: ‘the kingdoms of Phoenicia, Coele Syria, Cyprus, and a large part of Cilicia; in addition he gave her the balsam-producing part of Judaea, and all that part of Arabia of the Nabataeans which slopes toward the Red sea.’ Plutarch Life of Antony 36 In 34 BC, Antony had a successful campaign in Armenia. He celebrated his triumph in Alexandria with Cleopatra as the New Isis. Antony was the New Dionysus. Within a few days, a ceremony took place in which the children were given their royal titles with Antony sitting on the throne as well. Ptolemy XV (Caesarion) was made the co-ruler with his mother and was called the King of Kings. Cleopatra was called the Queen of Kings. Alexander Helios was named Great King of the Seleucid empire (Armenia, media and Parthia). Cleopatra Selene was called Queen of Cyrenaica and Libya. Cleopatra and Antony's son, Ptolemy Philadelphos was named King of Pheonicia, Syria and Asia Minor at the age of two. These ‘gifts’ were called the Donations of Alexandria and they caused more than a little irritation in Rome! The extent of the Ptolemaic Kingdom http://www.livius.org/ps-pz/ptolemies/ptolemies.htm (information and map) http://www.explorethemed.com/PtolEgypt.asp (maps) First he announced that Cleopatra was Queen of Egypt, Cyprus, Libya, and Coele Syria, and that Caesarion was to rule with her. Caesarion was considered to be a son of Julius Caesar, who had made Cleopatra pregnant. Secondly he said that his sons by Cleopatra were to be named Kings of Kings, and to Alexander he gave Armenia, Media and Parthia (once it was conquered); to Ptolemy he gave Phoenicia, Syria, and Cilicia. In this meeting he displayed his sons in the dress of their kingdoms:, Alexander in the clothing of the Medes, upright crown with a tiara, and Ptolemy in boots, short cloak, and broad-brimmed hat with a diadem. Ptolemy was wearing the dress of those kings of Macedon who followed Alexander the Great; Alexander on the other hand wore the traditional costume of Medes and Armenians. When the boys had embraced their parents, one was given a guard of Armenians, the other of Macedonians. Cleopatra, at this meeting and at others later, in public wore the sacred robe of Isis, and was called the New Isis. Plutarch Life of Antony 54
Silver denarius of 32 BC, with heads of Antony and Cleopatra, British Museum http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/cm/s/silver_denarius_of_cleopatra.aspx
Theme: Life, character and death of Cleopatra 3.1 The family of Cleopatra 
3.2 Cleopatra becomes Queen of Egypt Ptolemy XII had made a will which indicated that he wanted his daughter, Cleopatra VII, and his son, Ptolemy XIII, to rule Egypt together. She was 18 when Ptolemy XII Auletes died in the spring of 51 BC. Cleopatra and Ptolemy were married as was the Egyptian custom. Her brother was 10 years old, and so guardians were appointed for him. These included Acjhillas, the army commander, a Greek Theodotus and an eunuch Pothinus, his financial minister. These three were clearly aiming to ensure their own position through the young king. In the context of Egyptian politics this meant the removal of Cleopatra as soon as possible, despite the fact that technically Rome was protecting her. In 51 BC an incident occurred which showed Cleopatra’s political sense. Bibulus the governor of Syria needed support because there was a threat from the Parthians after the defeat of Crassus in 53 BC. So he sent his two sons to Egypt to arrange the return of the soldiers who had been garrisoned there by Gabinius in 55 BC. They, however, had settled down in Egypt, married and did not wish to return. They mutinied and went so far as to kill the two sons of Bibulus. Cleopatra had the ring-leaders arrested and sent to Bibulus to be dealt with by Rome. As a result no action was taken against Egypt. In Egypt problems had arisen. Bad harvests in 50 BC resulted in food riots. She had the grain supply sent to Alexandria to ensure the population there were fed. They had killed Ptolemy XI over famine and Cleopatra was taking no chances. She also brought her younger brother more into the public eye, since up to this point she had been ruling effectively on her own. Palace politics and external pressures were making her position less secure. At some point she left Alexandria for Upper Egypt, perhaps at the end of 49 BC. Julius Caesar in his account of the Civil War mentions that Ptolemy XIII had driven Cleopatra out of Egypt. It was now that events beyond Egypt began to affect Cleopatra and her future. She had gone to get together an army and fight her way back to the throne. Before she could do that, Civil War broke out in the Empire and eventually reached Egypt in the shape of Pompey the Great. Cleopatra’s forces and those of Ptolemy were at Pelusium when Pompey arrived by boat from Cyprus. Ptolemy’s advisers decided to seek the favour of Caesar by killing his enemy. They persuaded Pompey to come ashore and there killed him. However, when Theodotus took the head of Pompey to Caesar he was not as pleased as Theodotus had expected. Instead he dismissed him, quite clearly angry that Pompey had been treated as he was. It was now that Cleopatra acted, and in the most dramatic way. The story goes that she gained access to Caesar by sending him a gift of a carpet, which was rolled up with her inside it! Whatever the truth, she knew she had to speak to him directly. Ptolemy and his armies were between her and Caesar, so some secret means had to be found. She also had to act quickly; there were too many threats, not just her brother but also her sister Arsinoe and the youngest Ptolemy, and the intrigues of the court. Cleopatra succeeded in her aim and before the end of 47 BC she was indeed the Queen of Egypt. 3.3 Cleopatra as presented in Roman and other sources Coins and statues http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/online_tours/egypt/cleopatra_history_to_myth/cleopatra_of_egypt_from_histo.aspx (pictures of Cleopatra from coins and statues) http://www.humanities.mq.edu.au/acans/caesar/CivilWars_Cleopatra.htm (Coins of Cleopatra and representation at Dendera). Plutarch describes Cleopatra: Her beauty, so we are told, was not itself outstanding; it did not immediately strike those who saw her; yet being with her had an inescapable hold; when talking with her, she was persuasive, and the character which surrounded her whole manner in company had a force to it. Plutarch Life of Antony 27
Plutarch describes Cleopatra’s effect on Antony But Dellius was sent by Antony, but when he saw Cleopatra, he understood her cunning and cleverness in conversation. Straightaway he realized that Antony was unlikely to do such a woman any harm, in fact it was more likely that she would have the greatest influence with him. Plutarch Life of Antony 25 In this way she so completely took control of Antony, that while Fulvia his wife was waging war on his behalf with Octavian in Rome, and a Parthian army commanded by Labienus was threatening Mesopotamia, and was about to invade Syria he let himself be carried off by her to Alexandria. There, like some a young man with time on his hands for leisure, he wasted his time spending it upon amusements and pleasures. Plutarch Life of Antony 28 Now the disastrous flaw in his character, asleep for so long, - his passion for Cleopatra- flared up again all the greater as he approached to Syria; they had imagined it had been charmed away and lulled to rest by common sense and good reasons. But at last, like the disobedient and uncontrollable horse of the soul, he rejected all the good advice for his safety and sent Fonteius Capito to bring Cleopatra to Syria. Plutarch Life of Antony 36 He was so eager to spend the winter with her that he began the war too early in the season for campaigning, and then made such a mess of his management of the campaign. He was not in control of his own judgement, but he behaved as though influenced by some drug or magic spell; he was always looking in her direction, always thinking about how fast he could return to her rather than how best to defeat the enemy. Plutarch Life of Antony 37 |