Gcse ancient History
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1.2 Agrippina’s Early Life: marriage, sister to the emperor and exile Agrippina had been born on November 6th AD 15 and since her father’s death had lived with Livia, her grandmother and mother of Tiberius. In AD 28 she was 13 years old and Tiberius arranged a marriage with Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (Tacitus Annals 4.75) who was about 30 when they married. His family was very rich and very distinguished as members of one of the leading families of Rome. Domitius had two sisters, one Domitia and the other Lepida in the sources. Both play a part in Agrippina’s later life. Domitia married a man called Sallustius Crispus Passienus, who later divorced Domitia and married Agrippina. Lepida was the mother of Messalina, the wife of Claudius before Agrippina. Her son Sulla was at one time due to marry Claudius’ daughter, Antonia. He was later executed by Nero. In AD 33 Agrippina’s sisters were also married off. Drusilla was married to Lucius Cassius Longinus and Livilla to Marcus Vinicius. Gaius meanwhile was clearly being presented as a successor with Tiberius Gemellus, Tiberius’ grandson. In March AD 37 Tiberius died (or was killed by Macro, the praetorian prefect) and Gaius became emperor. One of his first acts was to organised the gathering of the ashes of his mother and brothers and have them buried in a ceremony in the Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome. There were games in her honour, statues set up and coins minted. The family was promoted by Gaius, even Claudius who had been kept out the public eye by Augustus and Tiberius. Above all Gaius promoted his sisters. Their names were included in oaths and proposals to the Senate, and most importantly in the vow of allegiance taken to the emperor. Sestertius showing Agrippina and her sisters
The three sisters are represented on this coin from AD 37-8: Agrippina is Securitas, Drusilla (in the centre) is Concordia, and Livilla (on the right) is Fortuna. Because Gaius based his claim to be emperor on his relationship to Augustus and the popularity of his father Germanicus, he was using the presentation of his family to secure his position. This show of affection for his sisters also started rumours of incest between Gaius and them (Suetonius Gaius 24). This was to be a charge against Agrippina later with her son Nero. Whether these accusations were true or not is open to question since both Gaius and Agrippina are accused of all sorts of typical cruel and immoral behaviour in the sources in an effort to blacken their characters. These are stereotypical rumours and need to be considered carefully. On 15th December AD 37 Agrippia gave birth to her son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, later to be the Emperor Nero. This is an account in Suetonius’ Life of Nero. Suetonius includes some stories and hearsay which add an extra atmosphere to the birth of the child, especially in view of later events. Nero was born at Antium nine months after the death of Tiberius, On 15th December [AD 37]. The sun was rising with the effect that its rays fell on him almost before he could be laid upon the ground. Straightaway many made dreadful predictions about him from his horoscope, and even something said by his father Domitius was seen as warning: among all the congratulations of his friends, he said that "any child born from Agrippina and himself would be cursed and and a disaster for the state. Another sign of furtue misfortune occurred on the day of his purification; Gaius Caesar [Caligula] was asked by his sister to give the infant whatever name he wanted; he looked at his uncle Claudius, who as emperor would later adopt Nero; Gaius then said that he gave him the name of ‘Claudius’. He did this as a joke but Agrippina ignored the suggestion, because at that time Claudius was treated as an object of fun in the palace. Suetonius Nero 6
Drusilla died on 10th June AD 38 and was deified on 23rd September. Her second husband had been Marcus Lepidus. He had seemed to be a close associate of Gaius and even perhaps presented as potential successor. However, in AD 39 a plot by the governor of Germany seems have included both Lepidus and Agrippina who were lovers. When discussing her possible incest with Nero Tacitus mentions this affair: Possibly Agrippina really planned such a great wickedness, perhaps because the consideration of a new act of lust seemed more believable in a woman who as a girl had allowed herself to be seduced by Lepidus in the hope of gaining power; this same desire had led her to lower herself so far as to become the lover of Pallas, and had trained herself for any evil act by her marriage to her uncle. Tacitus Annals 14.2 Tacitus seems to imply it was this affair which set her on the road to immorality. The possibility is that Agrippina was looking for political support and using sexual means to gain it. Tacitus says that she did this ‘in the hope of gaining power’. Already she is being portrayed as ambitious and devious, a woman who will do anything for power. Another of her lovers at this time was said to be Lucius Annaeus Seneca. He was to be closely linked to Agrippina in the future. In AD 41 he was exiled on the accession of Claudius and recalled only in AD 49 through Agrippina’s wishes. Agrippina herself was exiled and Nero went to live with Domitia, his aunt when his father, Domitius, died late in AD 40. Claudius, her uncle, recalled her from exile on his accession in January AD 41.
Although recalled from exile and reunited with her son, Agrippina had many problems. Firstly her property had been confiscated and auctioned off by Gaius. Claudius solved this by forcing Domitia to divorce Sallustius Crispus Passienus so that he could marry Agrippina. He was wealthy and powerful. He died in AD 47 among rumours that Agrippina had poisoned him to get his money. (Suetonius Nero 6) Her most serious problem was the hatred of Messalina. Agrippina’s son, Domitius, was a serious rival for Britannicus, her son and Claudius’ son. Domitius’ connection to Augustus and Germanicus ensured his popularity. Claudius was actually present when some young nobles performed the Troy Game on horseback. Among them were Britannicus, the emperor's son, and Lucius Domitius, soon afterwards to be adopted by Claudius and appointed his successor with the name of Nero. The obviously greater support given to Domitius was seen as a sign of the future. There was a well-known story that there had been snakes acting as guards during his childhood, a fantastic story probably modelled on stories from other lands. Nero, never one to be modest about himself, used to claim that only one snake was ever seen in his room. Tacitus Annals 11.11 Suetonius version is more dramatic: Once his mother returned from exile and gained some power and influence again, he became much more important. It was said Messalina, wife of Claudius, had sent men to strangle him while asleep around midday, because she saw him as a rival to Britannicus. There is also the story that the men sent to kill Nero fled, frightened by a snake which shot out from his pillow. This story arose because a snake’s skin was found in his bed by his pillow. Nevertheless his mother insisted that he have the skin put into a golden bracelet which he wore on his right arm for some time. Only when he grew to dislike the thought of his mother did he throw it away, although when his situation was at its worst, he looked for it but never found it. Suetonius Nero 6
The threat from Messalina, however, was real enough. The people’s memory of Germanicus certainly added to his popularity; he was after all his last remaining male descendant; the sympathy for his mother Agrippina was increased by the violent cruelty of Messalina towards her. Messalina was always her enemy, but was even more violent towards Agrippina at this time. She was only prevented from making false charges and setting up accuser against her by a new passion which was close to madness. Tacitus Annals 11.12 Agrippina had to be careful and keep as low as profile as possible in the face of this danger to herself and her son. At the same time she must have had ambitions for him. Whatever she aimed for she could do very little while Messalina was alive and, if we believe the sources, completely controlling Claudius. However, in AD 47 it all changed. Messalina went too far. Tacitus tells the story of her affair with Gaius Silius (it starts at Annals 11.12) and eventually the affair becomes public, so that even Claudius gets to know about it from his freedmen, Pallas and Narcissus. Suetonius is much briefer and provides little help in understanding what happened. His next wife was Valeria Messalina, daughter of his cousin Messala Barbatus. Then he found out that, besides committing all sort of other criminal acts, she had even married Gaius Silius, with a contract signed by witnesses. He had her killed. Suetonius Claudius 28 For Agrippina, it opened the way to achieve her ambitions for her son. The first step would be marriage to Claudius. To do that she needed the help of someone close to the emperor who could persuade him to marry her. The freedman Pallas supported her claim to be Claudius’ next wife.
Theme: The nature of the imperial court 2.1 Claudius the Emperor In the ancient sources Claudius is often pictured as either a fool or weak or both. Most of all he is seen to be under the control of his wives and freedmen. 2.2 Freedmen They were ex-slaves. It was common in the Roman world for masters to free their slaves, partly because it meant that the freed slave had certain duties to perform for the ex-master, and also they no longer had to be kept and fed by the owner. Often the ex-slave remained in the master’s employment, as a client to his patron. These freedmen (and women) often had skills the patron needed. It meant a change of status but not a change of job. Most wealthy Romans had freedmen and freedwomen in their households working for them, in very important roles, especially as accountants, secretaries and administrators of their businesses. For the emperor, however, this meant that his freedmen were working in the administration not just of vast estates and property but also of the empire. They were a sort of civil service, dealing with letters, petitions, requests and money from all over the empire. Claudius was not the first to have freedmen working for him – Augustus had had them in all parts of the administration. Gaius had relied on freedmen. The most powerful of his freedmen was Callistus, who continued to be used by Claudius. Because the administration of the palace and the empire became more complex and because the emperor took more of the roles of government on himself, such freedmen were essential for the smooth running of the administration. Gradually the traditional roles for the senators and magistrates were taken over by these men as the government became more and more centralised in the palace. Instead of decision being taken in the Senate as in Republican Rome, there were now taken in the rooms in the palace by the emperor and few advisors, his friends, members of his family, important officials and freedmen. The sources give us accounts of decisions made by the emperor which are then simply agreed to by the Senate. An example of this is the way the Senate supported Claudius’ decision to marry Agrippina even though it was against the law since she was his niece. The freedman Pallas had convinced him to do this. Tacitus (AnnaIls 12. 1-7) describes how a suitable senator, Vitellius, was found (bribed according to Suetonius Claudius 26) to persuade the Senate. After his persuasive speech, Tacitus tells us this happened: Some senators were quick to rush out of the Senate-house declaring loudly that if the emperor hesitated, they would force him to act. A mixed crowd gathered, and kept shouting that the Roman people demanded this too. Claudius delayed no more; he went to meet them in the forum to receive their congratulations; he entered the senate house and demanded a decree which declared marriages between uncles and nieces to be legal. No one else was found who wanted this sort of marriage except Alledius Severus, a Roman eques (business man); it was said by many that he was motivated by his wish to win Agrippina’s favour. Tacitus Annals 12.7 Claudius, however, is the first emperor who is said to have been ruled by his freedmen, or at least to have relied on them too much. I have already explained how much his freedmen and wives controlled Claudius; he behaved towards them more like a slave than an emperor. He gave them honours, army comands, freedom from penalties, and punishments depending on what each wanted or was interested in at the time. Most of the time he had had no knowledge of what he was doing. Despite this he confirmed the order, since his freedmen said that the soldiers had done their duty because they had hurried to avenge their emperor without waiting to be told. Surely it is too much to believe that he himself signed the contract for the dowry in the marriage of Messalina and Silius just because the freedmen persuaded him that the marriage was really a fake, arranged so that they could transfer to another a certain danger which the omens said was threatening the emperor himself. Suetonius Claudius 29 This is typical of the claims made about how easily freedmen and wives manipulated Claudius. When he was trying to decide whom to marry, after the death of Messalina in AD 47, the freedmen were the advisors he turned to for help according to Tacitus: Callistus supported Lollia; Pallas supported Agrippina. Aelia Paetina however, of the family of the Tuberones, had the backing of Narcissus. Claudius constantly changed his mind depending on who he was listening to at the time; so finally he called them all to a conference and told them to give their views and explain their reasons. Tacitus Annals 12.1
Narcissus and Pallas These two freedmen are perhaps the most influential with Claudius. They had been the ones to warn Claudius against Messalina and had made sure that Claudius executed her. They seemed to be the ones he relied on most for advice. Pallas was in charge of the finances and Narcissus was in charge of correspondence. Their power was dependent on the emperor, or whoever had influence with him. Agrippina could not succeed without the support of one or more of them, and they would need her also. Both Pallas and Narcissus had been important in the downfall of Messalina. They would expect that if Britannicus, the son of Claudius and Messalina, became emperor, he would take revenge on them. It was therefore in their interest to promote not just Agrippina, but also the young Domitius as a successor. We are told that Pallas was Agrippina’s lover by Tacitus (Annals 12. 25, 12.65, 14.2). As before, Agrippina was prepared to use sexual attractiveness to gain her ambitions. She used Pallas to persuade Claudius to adopt Nero. In the consulship of Caius Antistius and Marcus Suilius (AD 50), the adoption of Domitius was brought forward through the efforts of Pallas. Pallas was first obligated to Agrippina, because he had supported her marriage, and then bound to her by their adultery. He still urged Claudius to consider the interests of the State, and to provide some protection for the young Britannicus. He reminded Claudius that Augustus had had the support of his grandsons, but he still gave power to his step-sons; Tiberius too, though he had his own son, had adopted Germanicus. He urged Claudius to take on a young man to share part of his work. Claudius was won over by these arguments which he repeated in a speech before the senators. So he put Domitius, who was 3 years older, before his own son Britannicus. Tacitus Annals 12.25 However, once Claudius was dead and Nero emperor, they very quickly lost power and positions. In fact even before Claudius’ death Narcissus lost his influence: Lepida was charged with trying to end the life of the Emperor’s wife by magic and with disturbing the peace of Italy by too little control of her bands of slaves in Calabria. She was sentenced to death, despite the strong opposition of Narcissus. He had become more suspicious of Agrippina’s intentions. Rumour was that he said to his closest friends, “My own ruin is inevitable whether Britannicus or Nero becomes emperor; … But the plans of the stepmother aim at overthrowing the whole imperial house, resulting in a much greater disaster than if I had kept silent about the immorality of Messalina, his previous wife. As things stand, disgrace is not difficult to find with Pallas as her lover; so no one can have any doubts that she considers her reputation, her decency and even her own body, everything, cheaper than power.” With so much worry and concern, Narcissus became ill; he went to Sinuessa to recover his strength with its gentle climate and healing waters. Then, Agrippina who had for a while decided on murder, seized on the opportunity this offered. Tacitus Annals 12.65-6
In fact, Narcissus committed suicide at the very beginning of Nero’s reign in AD 54 (Tacitus Annals 13.1). Pallas lost influence also but his death came much later. He still had the support of Agrippina (Annals 13. 2) but we are told in that passage that Nero hated Pallas because of his arrogant nature. Once Agrippina began to lose favour with Nero, Pallas lost his post and was removed from the palace. (Annals 13.14)
2.3 The Senate during the reign of Claudius and Nero Because of the centralization of administration in the palace relations with the Senate were often difficult. It was not helped by the way in which Claudius had become emperor in AD 41. He had been imposed on the Senate by the praetorian guard who had discovered him hiding after the murder of Gaius. The guard insisted on him becoming emperor as the brother of Germanicus, whose memory was still very popular and the only surviving Julio-Claudian. In any case he paid them each 150 gold pieces! Claudius tried hard to please the Senate. He gave them back the provinces of Achaea and Macedonia. He was respectful and always made an effort to join in debates and provide opportunities for the Senate to be involved. He did try to improve its image; as censor he removed some who were not eligible or suitable and added senators. However, his decision to allow Gauls to enter the Senate probably angered some traditional senators. There were plots against his life (see Suetonius Claudius 13). The dislike of Claudius among senators led him to give posts and tasks to others such as freedmen. His great project of draining the Fucine lake was eventually given to Narcissus to oversee. This led to problems with the senators and a number were executed in his reign: Appius Silanus, Vinicianus, Scrbonianus, Asinius gallus, Valerius Asiaticus and others. Some of these are blamed on his wives and freedmen, but Suetonius (Claudius 29) says that 35 senators and 300 equestrians were killed by Claudius. Nero began his reign with a claim that he would restore the Senate. Once the pretence of sadness was done with, he entered the Senate, and spoke of the authority of the senators and the support of the soldiers; he mentioned the advice and examples of good government which were there to help him. …He then described the shape of his future government, especially avoiding those things which had caused recent unpopularity. He claimed he would not judge every case, or keep accuser and accused locked in the same house, letting the power of few people control everything. In his house, he said, nothing would be for sale and there would be no opportunity for corruption; his private affairs and the affairs of the State would be kept separate. The Senate would keep its ancient duties; Italy and the public provinces should present their cases before the consuls, who would provide then with audience before the senators. He himself would see to the armies allotted to him. He kept his promise and many matters were decided by the senate. Tacitus Annals 13.4-5 There is a lot of evidence in Tacitus and Suetonius that Nero did perform well during his first few years. Trajan is said to have referred to them as five good years. The Senate were consulted on a number of matters and their views were treated with respect. It is often thought that this was due to the influence of Seneca and Burrus, because Nero took little interest in administration, spending more time having fun, getting drunk and causing trouble at night in Rome (Suetonius Nero 26). This changed after the death of his mother in AD 59, and the death of Burrus in AD 62, when Seneca also retired. He became less inclined to ask the Senate and after the plot of Piso in AD 65, tended to remove opposition violently. Theme: The lives and characters of Agrippina, Claudius and Nero Theme: The influence of Agrippina on Roman politics Because these two themes (the lives and characters of Agrippina, Claudius and Nero, and the influence of Agrippina on politics during their reigns) are so bound up together, with one providing evidence of the other, they have been treated together for this section of the textbook. 3.1 Claudius and Agrippina This argument won over Claudius, supported by the attractions of Agrippina herself. Under the excuse of their close family relationship, she frequently visited her uncle, and gained his affection so that she was preferred to the others, and, although she was not yet his wife, she could already use the power as if she was married to him. When she was certain he would marry her, she started still greater schemes; she wanted a marriage between Domitius, her son by Cn. Ahenobarbus, and Octavia, the emperor's daughter. However, this marriage could not be achieved without a crime, because Claudius had engaged Octavia to L. Silanus. …But nothing is difficult, it seems, in the mind of an emperor, who has no judgements and no hatreds unless they are suggested and ordered by others. Tacitus Annals 12.3 This view of Agrippina using her sexual charms to trap Claudius is repeated by Suetonius (Claudius 26). It is a fairly stereotypical approach by Roman historians towards the portrayal of any powerful woman in Roman politics. |