Ana səhifə

Gcse ancient History


Yüklə 2.8 Mb.
səhifə23/28
tarix27.06.2016
ölçüsü2.8 Mb.
1   ...   20   21   22   23   24   25   26   27   28

While Antony was playing the young fool like this, two messages brought him down to earth: the first from Rome, that Lucius his brother and Fulvia his wife had fallen out with one another; next they had started a war with Octavian, but they had lost badly and had fled from Italy; the second message was no more pleasing, that Labienus, commanding the Parthian force, was overrunning Asia from the Euphrates and Syria as far as Lydia and Ionia. So finally, like a man woken from a deep sleep brought on by a night of heavy drinking, Antony set out to stop the Parthians, and reached Phoenicia; there, a letter arrived from Fulvia full of complaints. He turned round and headed towards Italy with two hundred ships.

Plutarch Life of Antony 30



Task 4F

This is Antony’s response to the problems: how well does he deal with them?

Read Plutarch Life of Antony 31-33: what impression of the personal rivalry between Octavian and Antony do you get?

What is Plutarch’s opinion of Antony’s successes in these passages? Do you think he is fair to Antony?




However, they say that all this preparation and power, which frightened even the Indians beyond Bactria and caused all of Asia to shake with fear, was of no use to Antony because of Cleopatra. He was so eager to spend the winter with her that he began the war too early in the season for campaigning, and then made such a mess of his management of the campaign. He was not in control of his own judgement, but he behaved as though influenced by some drug or magic spell; he was always looking in her direction, always thinking about how fast he could return to her rather than how best to defeat the enemy.

Plutarch Life of Antony 37



Task 4G

Read Plutarch Life of Antony 51: the end of his campaign and his reaction.



Octavia and Antony:

He did not deny his affair with Cleopatra; he did not, however, agree that she was his wife, and in this matter of how to describe his relationship, his reason and his love for the Egyptian were fighting it out. Everyone was working to arrange this marriage. They hoped that Octavia, who had great dignity and commonsense to add to her beauty, would stand by Antony’s side and eventually be loved by him, as was natural with such a woman. In this way, they hoped, she would bring some stability and safety for their affairs and harmony for the world.

Plutarch Life of Antony 31

Task 4H

Why did Antony agree to the marriage to Octavia?

How does Antony treat Octavia? How important was she in the agreement at Tarentum? (Plutarch Life of Antony 35).

What does the passage below tell you about Octavia? How is she contrasted with Cleopatra?

Read the rest of passage 53 and passage 54: what does Cleopatra do and why? How does Octavian react to the treatment of Octavia?

What aim do you think Plutarch has in portraying Octavia as he does? How does it affect your view of Antony?




At Rome Octavia wanted to sail to Antony. Octavian allowed her to go, so most writers say, not to please her, but so that, if she were neglected and mistreated this might give him a plausible excuse for war. On arriving in Athens, she received letters from Antony in which he told her remain there and informed her of what had happened on the expedition. Octavia, although she realized this was an excuse and was upset, nevertheless wrote to Antony in order to learn where he ordered her to send the supplies which she was bringing to him. In fact she brought a great supply of clothing for his soldiers, pack-animals, and money and gifts for the commanders and friends with him; also she had with her two thousand selected soldiers splendidly armoured to serve as praetorian cohorts. A certain friend of Antony, sent by Octavia, told Antony all of this, a friend of his who had been sent from Octavia, and he added all the compliments and praises that she deserved.

Plutarch Life of Antony 53



4.7 The relationship between Cleopatra and Antony

Cleopatra in Egypt 44-41 BC

Once Cleopatra returned to Egypt she set about organising Egypt on a sound economic basis in order to face whoever turned about to be the power in Rome.

Technically she shared the throne with Ptolemy XIV although he had barely counted in ruling Egypt so far. He might have become a focus for opposition as he grew older. As it happened he was dead by September 44 BC, and Cleopatra ruled with her infant son Caesarion. There were plenty of ancient writers willing to suggest Ptolemy XIV was killed by her.

In administration she worked effectively to maintain the food supply and develop trade. She extended her control to Jericho and Nabatea, gaining access to valuable balsam and bitumen trade. She re-issued coinage with only her own name against precedent.

Religion was very important in Egyptian life and Cleopatra used this to her advantage. She is represented as Isis; Caesarion was identified with Horus. Horus was the avenger of his father’s murder which made the connection with Caesarion and Caesar. She is displayed with other Egyptian gods in reliefs. In Greek religion she continued the identification begun by her father with Dionysus (Ptolemy XII had been called the New Dionysus), and identified herself with Aphrodite.

Cleopatra had sent 4 legions to help Dolabella against Cassius, although they arrived too late. For this act Dio Cassius says that her and Caesarion’s rule of Egypt was recognized by the triumvirs. However the legions, made up of troops left by Caesar in Egypt, decided to join Cassius. She next took herself a fleet to help Antony and Octavian ferry troops across to Greece. But storms forced them to return to Egypt, during which Cleopatra risked her life.



The meeting at Tarsus

Antony summoned Cleopatra to meet him at Tarsus to answer the accusation that she had helped the conspirators. In fact Antony needed money and resources, and he needed to be sure his client kings and queens could keep the peace as he moved forward into Parthia. Cleopatra certainly needed to ensure his support. She delayed obeying the summons, until Dellius was sent to persuade her.

So this was Antony’s character when this final disaster - his love for Cleopatra - overtook him. This love stirred up to near-madness those many passions which were up till now hidden, or kept under control. It now removed and destroyed any useful or saving qualities which could have held out against it. In this way he was captured by her.

Plutarch Life of Antony 25

She arrived in her royal barge. Plutarch (26) describes this in great detail – also how she upstaged Antony and how the people viewed it as Aphrodite meeting Dionysus (Bacchus); he describes Cleopatra’s extravagant display at dinner; he tells us that Antony could not match the splendour of the setting. His description of her charms (27) makes it understandable when he says at 28:

In this way she so completely took control of Antony, that while Fulvia his wife was waging war on his behalf with Octavian in Rome, and a Parthian army commanded by Labienus was threatening Mesopotamia (the generals of the king had appointed Labienus Parthian commander-in chief over this area), and was about to invade Syria, he let himself be carried off by her to Alexandria.

Plutrach Life of Anthony 28

Winter in Alexandria 41-40 BC

According to Plutarch, he lived a life of pleasure and luxury, playing games rather than preparing for his war. (Plutarch Life of Antony 28-29). He tells the story of the fishing trip as an example of his childish games.

In fact Antony did take certain actions to support Cleopatra:


  • it was now that Arisnoe was executed;

  • Serapeion, the governor of Cyprus, was removed because he had aided Cassius to make it very clear that Cleopatra was not involved in any way with the murderers of Caesar.

  • A man who claimed to be Ptolemy XIII had set himself up as a rival to Cleopatra in the East. Antony had no problem removing him from the scene.

In 40 BC he returned to Italy to deal with the problem of the Perusine war. There he married Octavia and did not return to Cleopatra at this stage. He was now engaged upon the serious matter of the Parthians.

By now Cleopatra had borne two children, Alexander and Cleopatra. As with Caesarion, this gave Cleopatra and Egypt an association with a powerful faction in Rome, which is what she wanted most of all. It meant some protection from other factions who might want Egypt. The relationship was political as much as personal.



Antony in Syria 37 BC

Now the disastrous flaw in his character, asleep for so long, - his passion for Cleopatra- flared up again all the greater as he approached to Syria; they had imagined it had been charmed away and lulled to rest by common sense and good reasons. But at last, like the disobedient and uncontrollable horse of the soul, he rejected all the good advice for his safety and sent Fonteius Capito to bring Cleopatra to Syria.

Plutarch Life of Antony 36

It is at this point that Antony hands over to Cleopatra a number of territories which had belonged at some time to Egypt. (see the Expansion of Egypt section); he also recognized his two children by Cleopatra, Alexander and Cleopatra.

These acts, we are told, angered the Romans, even more than his execution of Antigonus of Judaea. However, the portrayal of Antony as bewitched by the magical charms of Cleopatra in the sources is part of the propaganda of Octavian which made it easier to make war on Antony eventually. To portray a foreign woman as the real enemy was far more acceptable to the Roman public and Senate than to attack Antony who for all his problems was still popular in Rome.

The Parthian campaign

His campaign began at Zeugma. His intention was to attack Parthia from the North and make a rapid march into Parthia in order to capture the Median capital at Phraaspa. In doing so he left his siege train following slowly behind. It was attacked by the Parthians and the commander, Statianus killed. He was now forced to retreat through hostile territory. Many of his soldiers were killed in the constant attacks, but he reached Armenia, where he left the army and himself rode onto Syria, expecting to meet Cleopatra who was to bring resources, money and clothing. She arrived in January 35 BC at Leuke Come. Cleopatra could not afford Antony to lose since she depended upon him for her support. Octavian had just defeated Sextus Pompeius and eliminated Lepidus as a rival in the West.

Antony now needed time to recover and to re-supply his army. it was at this time that Sextus Pompeius, who was now in the East, was executed, partly because he was causing trouble in Syria and with the Parthians.

Antony now broke off relations with Octavia, his wife. He stayed in Alexandria when Octavia came to Athens. (Plutarch Life of Antony 53-54). He did not immediately divorce her – that happened three years later.

Her flatterers worked hard on Antony for her; they used to complain that Antony harsh and cruel and determined to destroy a mistress who was devoted to one man, him alone. They would tell Antony that Octavia had married him for politics and for her brother, and took pleasure in having the name of wife. Cleopatra on the other hand, queen of so many men, was called Antony's lover; she did not avoid this name nor think it unworthy of her, as long as it was possible for her to see him and be with him. If he drove her away, she could not bear to live. At last they melted and unmanned Antony so much that he was afraid that Cleopatra would kill herself, and so went back to Alexandria. He delayed the campaign with the king of the Medes until the summer, although the Parthian were said to be in the middle of an internal crisis.

Plutarch Life of Antony 53

The ancient sources represent this act as the result of the weakness of Antony and the cleverness of Cleopatra who manipulates him against his interests for herself.

The Armenian campaign 34 BC

Artavasdes was king of Armenia. His forces had deserted Antony in his Parthian campaign. However, Antony tried to make an alliance with him in 34 BC in the hope he would join him against Parthia where there was a civil war at the time. Control of Armenia was vital for an invasion of Parthia. When negotiation broke down Antony invaded, taking Cleopatra with him as far as the Euphrates. he captured Artavasdes, and garrisoned Armenia leaving Canidius Crassus in charge before returning to Alexandria to celebrate his triumph.



Task 4I

Read Velleius Paterculus 2.81: what does he tell us about the Parthian campaign and Armenian campaign?




4.8 Actium 2nd September 31 BC

We have accounts of the preparations for battle of Actium and of the battle itself which are written by people who were alive at the time: Velleius Paterculus, the historian, and the poets Virgil, Propertius and Horace. However, writing during the reign of Octavian/Augustus it was not possible in these accounts to present a favourable picture of the role of Cleopatra, no matter how Antony was portrayed. Cleopatra could never be anything other than the devious and cunning Queen who controlled a weak Antony to do as she wanted. Octavian presented the war as a war against Cleopatra, not Antony. Cleopatra, with her enlarged kingdom and resources, and with her children as kings and queens of the East, or even Caesarion who would succeed her, would be too powerful for Octavian to ignore regardless of Antony. If Antony had returned to Rome as conqueror of Parthia, viewed as likely at the time, Octavian would be inferior to him or worse. Octavian conducted a propaganda war against Cleopatra in which Antonys constant un-Roman behaviour in the East provided useful material.

When Octavian was well-prepared, there was a decree to wage war against Cleopatra, and to take from Antony the authority which he had given over to the woman. And Octavian added that Antony was under some drug and was not even in control of himself; the Romans, he said, were at war with Mardion, the eunuch and Potheinus, and Iras, the hairdresser of Cleopatra, and Charmion, who was in charge of conducting the most important affairs of state.

Plutarch Life of Anthony 60

Eventually Antony realized that this was inevitable and began to turn his attention away from Parthia, as Octavian had wanted. He started to mobilize his forces to fight Octavian.

Antony received Octavian’s reply while delaying in Armenia; and immediately he ordered Canidius to take sixteen legions and march down to the sea. He himself went to Ephesus with Cleopatra. His fleet was being collected there; there were eight hundred war-ships with merchant vessels; of these Cleopatra provided two hundred war-ships, as well as twenty thousand talents, and supplies for the whole army during the war. But Antony, advised by Domitius and others, ordered Cleopatra to sail to Egypt and there anxiously wait for the result of the war. Cleopatra, however was afraid that Octavia would again bring an end to the disagreements between the two men, bribed Canidius with a great deal of money to put her case to Antony; he was to say that it was not fair to drive away from the war a woman who had contributed so much money and supplies; nor was it right for Antony to demoralise the Egyptians, who were a large part of his fleet; and besides, there was no reason to think that Cleopatra was less intelligent than any of the other kings campaigning with him; she had after all ruled a large kingdom by herself for quite a long time, and being so long with Antony, she had learned how to deal with important matters. These arguments (since it seemed that fate had decided that Octavian Caesar should succeed in all things) were successful. Then they sailed to Samos with the entire fleet and there enjoyed themselves in pleasures. All the kings, rulers, tetrarchs, peoples, and cities between Syria, the Maeotic Lake, Armenia, and Illyria had been ordered to send or bring their preparations for the war to Samos.

Plutarch Life of Anthony 56

Task 4J

Plutarch describes the first moves towards war with Octavian: what part does Cleopatra take in this?

Read Plutarch Life of Antony 58: how does Octavian use Antony’s relationship with Cleopatra as propaganda against Antony?


Then, in the year when Octavian Caesar and Messala Corvinus were consuls, the battle was fought at Actium. Long before the battle was fought, everyone was certain that Octavian would win. On Octavian’s side the soldiers and their general were eager and confident; on Antony’s everything was weak and feeble. Octavian’s rowers were strong, Antony’s were affected by their lack of supplies. The ships of Octavian were of a reasonable size, capable of speed, while Antony’s were terrible only in appearance. No one deserted to Antony, while daily there were desertions from Antony to Octavian. King Amyntas recognised the advantages of joining the better side. Dellius stuck to his previous practice: just as he had deserted from Dolabella to Cassius, then from Cassius to Antony, so he now left Antony for Octavian. The outstanding Gnaeus Domitius, who alone of Antony’s followers never greeted the queen except by her name, crossed over to Octavian Caesar endangering himself in the process. Finally, right in front of Antony and his fleet, Leucas, Patrae, and Corinth were all taken by Marcus Agrippa, and he twice defeated the enemy’s fleet before the final battle.

Vellieus Paterculus 2.84

Plutarch claims in Life of Antony 59 and 63 that desertions were the result of Cleopatra’s presence.

One of Antony’s first acts was to divorce Octavia in 32 BC. This further helped Octavian in his claim that the war he was fighting was a foreign one. Antony, on the other hand, could not say this to his soldiers who were being asked to fight Romans in another civil war.

Octavian then seized Antony’s will which was kept by the Vestal Virgins in Rome. Despite the illegal and unprecedented action, Octavian read it out in the Senate. Antony confirmed the kingdoms he had given to Cleopatra and her children. He declared Caesarion was the true son of Caesar. He also requested that when he died he should be buried in Alexandria with Cleopatra. It was understood from this that Antony might make Alexandria the capital of the Empire if he won and turn the rest of the Empire over to Cleopatra. There was no way of knowing if any of what Octavian said was true. In any case the Senate believed it.

Antony chose to wait in Greece for Octavian to come to him rather than attack Italy. Cleopatra stayed with Antony throughout the campaign. Plutarch (see passage 56 above) claims that Canidius was bribed to argue for her staying.



The Battle

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Actium_en.svg

Antony now had become so controlled by Cleopatra that, although he was far stronger on land, he wanted to win his victory at sea, all for the sake of Cleopatra; even though he saw that his captains had not enough men to crew the ships and were forcing travellers, mule-drivers, harvesters, and young men from Greece, already suffering much. Even doing this the ships were still short of men, and so were undermanned and badly crewed. On the other hand, Octavian’s ships were properly equipped, built to show of their height or their size, but easy to steer, fast and fully-manned.

Plutarch Life of Antony 62

Task 4K

How far does this description agree with other accounts of the forces on both sides?

Read Velleius Paterculus 2.84; Virgil Aeneid 6.75-88; Propertius 4.6.40


Antony chose to fight Octavian at sea rather than on land as his generals were suggesting (see Plutarch Life of Antony 64 for the story of the centurion and Antony.

Agrippa, Octavian’s general, had gradually gained control of the sea, capturing Methone, Patras and Corinth, cutting off supplies to Antony. Instead of controlling the situation, Antony was now the one in trouble. There were attempts to break through the blockade and attack Octavian’s camp on land. Despite some success Antony was unable to break through. (Plutarch 62-63, Velleius 2.84).

With disease spreading and supplies low, morale in Antony’s camp was getting low. He had problems with desertions and harsh punishments did not help. The longer he waited the worse it would get. Something had to be done. Cleopatra argued for a sea battle (Plutarch Life of Antony 62), while Canidius wanted to force a land battle. At this point, it was clear that the battle of Actium was unlikely to be the end of the war. Antony needed a place and time to recover and collect his forces. To escape from Actium to Egypt was an option, while his army marched overland to Egypt. In passage 64, Plutarch tells that Antony told the captains to put the sails on board, explaining that it indicated Antony had little hope of success and intended escape.

Task 4L

Velleius Paterculus 2.85 and Plutarch Life of Antony 64-68 describe the battle: how are Antony and Octavian compared as generals and leaders?



  • What does Cleopatra do during and after the battle (passage 67)?

  • What personal connection had Plutarch with the events around Actium?

http://www.livius.org/aa-ac/actium/actium.html for more detail.

http://ehistory.osu.edu/world/articles/ArticleView.cfm?AID=16 for a discussion of tactics


The significance of the battle

Who could in such a limited history would dare to explain what that single day provided for the world, the day which brought about the present changes in the good fortune for the state?  Very many were shown mercy in the victory; no one was executed, and very few were banished and only those who could not bear the thought of pleading for mercy.

Velleius Paterculus 2.86

Task 4M

How do the poets Horace, Propertius and Virgil view the victory at Actium? Do they agree with Velleius on its effects for Rome?

What happened to Antony’s army and navy after the battle?


The war was not finished. Antony and Cleopatra could still gather the resources of Egypt and the east. As Caesar’s war had shown, defeating the main opponent did not end the struggle. Octavian still had to defeat and capture or kill them. Antony had escaped with his wealth on Cleopatra’s ship. His army had been undefeated and was supposedly on its way to Egypt. Octavian was forced to return to Italy to deal with a revolt started by the son of Lepidus. In Plutarch Antony is presented as having lost all resolve and ambition. Meanwhile, Cleopatra was making plans to escape (Plutarch Life of Antony 69).

Cleopatra took some actions: she introduced Caesarion more in public; Antyllus, Antony’s son, held his coming of age ceremony. Artavasdes was executed. There was an alliance with the Median king including the betrothal of his daughter to Alexander Helios. Eventually Octavian arrived at Pelusium which he captured from the commander, Seleucus. Cornelius Gallus arrived by sea and took the post at Paraetonium. Cleopatra and Antony were now surrounded in Alexandria. Antony won a brief cavalry victory outside Alexandria. When on 31st July BC the fleets and armies came out to fight, instead of doing so, the fleet of Antony joined Octavian’s and the army followed its example.

Sources: nature of the sources and the manipulation of Cleopatra’s image

1   ...   20   21   22   23   24   25   26   27   28


Verilənlər bazası müəlliflik hüququ ilə müdafiə olunur ©atelim.com 2016
rəhbərliyinə müraciət