Gao1 Zu3(great great grandfather) 高祖 Liu2 Bang1
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| 4) NanAnWang 南安王 Tuoba Yu 拓拔余 452 Chengping (承平 cheng ping) 452 Tuoba Yu (拓拔余) (died 452), formally Prince Yin of Nan'an (南安隐王), was briefly an emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei. He was placed on the throne by the eunuch Zong Ai after Zong assassinated his father Emperor Taiwu in spring 452, and Zong was largely in control of the regime during his reign. Later in the year, when Tuoba Yu tried to assert his own authority, Zong had him assassinated as well, but then was overthrown by a group of officials, who put Tuoba Yu's nephew Tuoba Jun (the son of Tuoba Yu's older brother, Tuoba Huang the Crown Prince, who had predeceased their father) on the throne as Emperor Wencheng. Background
It is not known when Tuoba Yu was born, but it is known that he was the youngest of Emperor Taiwu's six sons who survived childhood. His mother Consort Yujiulu was a sister of Rouran's Chilian Khan Yujiulu Wuti, who had become an imperial consort of Emperor Taiwu's as part of a peace-marriage arrangement in 434, whereby he married Consort Yujiulu while marrying his sister or cousin Princess Xihai to Yujiulu Wuti. He was created the Prince of Wu in 442, and 450, when his father was counter-attacking after a major LS attack, and Crown Prince Huang was defending the northern borders against a potential Rouran attack, Prince Yu was left in charge of the capital Pingcheng (平城, in modern Datong, Shanxi), a sign that Emperor Taiwu trusted his abilities. In 452, his title was changed to Prince of Nan'an. Sometime late in Emperor Taiwu's reign, Tuoba Yu became friendly with Emperor Taiwu's eunuch Zong Ai, who in 451 had falsely accused Crown Prince Huang's associates Chouni Daosheng (仇尼道盛) and Ren Pingcheng (任平城) of crimes, causing many members of Crown Prince Huang's staff to be executed and Crown Prince Huang himself to fall ill in fear and die. In spring 452, in fear that Emperor Taiwu would punish him, Zong assassinated Emperor Taiwu. The officials initially did not announce Emperor Taiwu's death, but were debating between whether to make Crown Prince Huang's oldest son Tuoba Jun or Emperor Taiwu's oldest surviving son Tuoba Han (拓拔翰) the Prince of Dongping emperor. Zong, who was also on poor terms with Tuoba Han, summoned Tuoba Yu to the palace instead, and forged an edict of Emperor Taiwu's wife Empress Helian to ambush and put the officials in favor of either Tuoba Jun or Tuoba Han to death. He then executed Tuoba Han as well and made Tuoba Yu emperor. Brief reign Tuoba Yu honored Empress Helian as empress dowager, and he bestowed Zong a number of high level posts, including prime minister, making it clear that Zong was actually in control of the regime, as well as creating him the Prince of Fengyi. Tuoba Yu's ascension to the throne was apparently largely without major opposition, but he knew that he bypassed his older brothers, as well as his nephew (who by Confucian principles of succession should have been emperor), and therefore tried to gather officials' support by giving them rewards so large that the treasury was exhausted. It was also described that Tuoba Yu drank often, and often spent time on entertainment and hunting, with little time for important matters of state. Zong, as prime minister, was in charge of imperial guards as well, and he became extremely arrogant. Eventually, Tuoba Yu grew tired of Zong's antics and planned to strip him of his authority. Zong heard about this, and in winter 452, while Tuoba Yu was making a sacrifice to his great-grandfather Emperor Daowu at night, Zong sent his assistant Jia Zhou (贾周) to assassinate him. He was on the throne for only slightly over seven months. Several officials subsequently overthrew Zong and made Tuoba Jun emperor (as Emperor Wencheng). Emperor Wencheng buried Tuoba Yu with honors due an imperial prince, but not due an emperor, and gave him a posthumous name. Era name * Chengping (承平 cheng ping) 452 Personal information * Father
o Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei * Mother
o Consort Yujiulu, sister of Yujiulu Wuti, Chilian Khan of Rouran 5) Wen Cheng Di 文成帝 TuobaJun 拓拔浚452-465 Xingan (兴安 x_ng _n) 452-454 Xingguang (兴光 x_ng gu_ng) 454-455 Tai'an (太安 tai _n) 455-459 Heping (和平 he ping) 460-465 Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei ((北)魏文成帝) (440[1]━465), personal name Tuoba Jun (拓拔浚), was an emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei. He became emperor in the aftermaths of the eunuch Zong Ai's assassination of his grandfather Emperor Taiwu and uncle Tuoba Yu, and he was generally described by historians as a ruler who sought foremost to allow his people to rest after his grandfather's expansionist policies and extensive campaigns, who also reformed the laws to become more lenient. Background Tuoba Jun was born in 440, when his father Tuoba Huang was the crown prince of his grandfather, Emperor Taiwu. (Some historical sources give his birthdate as 448, a date that appears rather unlikely because that would make him only six years older than his son, Emperor Xianwen.) His mother Consort Yujiulu was the sister of the general Yujiulu Pi (郁久闾毗), who had been a member of the Rouran royal house but who had surrendered to Northern Wei. When he was little, he was much favored by his grandfather Emperor Taiwu, and often accompanied Emperor Taiwu, even on military campaigns. While he carried no official titles, he was known as the Prime Imperial Grandson (嫡皇孙). Around the new year 452, after his father Tuoba Huang had died in 451 after falling ill over his fear of false accusations by the eunuch Zong Ai, Emperor Taiwu created him the Prince of Gaoyang, but then reconsidered, believing that a princely title was inappropriate for his oldest grandson, and therefore cancelled the title─signifying strongly that he intended for Tuoba Jun to succeed him. However, Zong Ai, in fear that Emperor Taiwu would punish him over his false accusations against Crown Prince Huang, assassinated Emperor Taiwu in spring 452, and, skipping over Tuoba Jun, made Tuoba Huang's younger brother Tuoba Yu the Prince of Nan'an emperor. Zong controlled all important matters of state, and when Tuoba Yu, displeased about Zong's arrogance, tried to strip him of power in fall 452, Zong assassinated him as well. The officials Dugu Ni (独孤尼), Yuan He, Baba Kehou (拔拔渴侯), and Buliugu Li, however, then overthrew Zong and executed him, making Tuoba Jun emperor at the age of 12, as Emperor Wencheng. Early reign Immediately following Emperor Wencheng's taking the throne, it appeared that the high level officials began internecine struggles against each other, as for several years officials would be put into honored positions, only to be executed days or months later. These included senior officials held over from Emperor Taiwu's administration as well as those who had accomplished much in putting Emperor Wencheng on the throne, and included: * Tuoba Shoule (拓拔寿乐), chief commander (winter 452) * Baba Kehou, a major participant in the coup bringing Emperor Wencheng to the throne (winter 452) * Tuxi Bi (吐奚弼), prime minister under Tuoba Yu (winter 452) * Zhang Li (张黎), chief commander under Tuoba Yu (winter 452) * Tuoba Zhouniu (拓拔周忸) the Prince of Leling, chief commander (winter 452) * Duguhun Yuanbao (独孤浑元宝) the Prince of Jingzhao (spring 453) * Tuoba Chong (拓拔崇) the Prince of Jianning, Emperor Wencheng's granduncle, and his son Tuoba Li (拓拔丽) the Prince of Ji'nan (spring 453) * Yujiulu Ruowen (郁久闾若文) the Prince of Puyang (fall 453) * Tuoba Ren (拓拔仁) the Prince of Yongchang, Emperor Wencheng's distant uncle (fall 453) * Tuoba Ba (拓拔拔) the Prince of Leping, Emperor Wencheng's distant uncle (spring 455) It appeared that Yuan He and Buliugu Li were the key victors out of these struggles, for not only did they not suffer during the infighting, but became exceedingly honored late in Emperor Wencheng's reign. Both they and Dugu Ni were created princes. Whether Emperor Wencheng himself was involved in these internecine struggles is unclear, although the edicts were issued in his name. Yuchi Juan (尉迟眷), already a decorated general during Emperor Taiwu's reign, also became powerful. Another characteristic of Emperor Wencheng's reign was that he often toured the provinces throughout his empire. In winter 452, Emperor Wencheng's mother Consort Yujiulu died, and he subsequently posthumously honored his parents as emperor and empress. Around the new year 453, Emperor Wencheng, a Buddhist, officially ended the prohibitions against Buddhism that Emperor Taiwu had instituted in 445 (which became known as the first of Three Disasters of Wu), and he personally performed tonsure on five monks. However, as per the traditions instituted by Emperor Taiwu, he also publicly received Taoist amulets in spring 454. In spring 453, Emperor Wencheng honored his wet nurse Lady Chang as empress dowager, and treated her brothers as if they were his biological uncles. In fall 454, Emperor Wencheng's concubine Consort Li gave birth to his oldest son Tuoba Hong. In 456, he created another imperial consort, Consort Feng, empress and created Tuoba Hong crown prince─and then, pursuant to Northern Wei tradition, ordered Tuoba Hong's mother Consort Li to commit suicide. In winter 458, Emperor Wencheng launched a major attack against Rouran, but considered abandoningit when his troops encountered a snow storm. At Weichi Juan's urging (arguing that a withdrawal would unduly signal weakness to Rouran), however, Emperor Wencheng continued, and while he was not able to deal a major defeat to Rouran's Chuluo Khan Yujiulu Tuhezhen, a number of Rouran tribesmen surrendered. Meanwhile, in his absence, his generals Feng Chiwen (封敕文) and Pi Baozi (皮豹子) engaged LS forces near the Ji River (济水, the route of which had been overtaken by the Yellow River in modern times), with inconclusive results.
* Xing'an (兴安 x_ng _n) 452-454 * Xingguang (兴光 x_ng gu_ng) 454-455 * Tai'an (太安 tai _n) 455-459 * Heping (和平 he ping) 460-465
* Father
o Tuoba Huang, Crown Prince Jingmu, posthumously honored as Emperor Jingmu, son of Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei * Mother
o Consort Yujiulu, sister of Yujiulu Pi (郁久闾毗) the Prince of Hedong, posthumously honored as Empress Gong * Wife
o Empress Feng (created 456), daughter of Feng Lang (冯朗) the Duke of Liaoxi, son of Feng Hong the emperor of Northern Yan. Burial: Empress Dowager Wenming tomb. * Major Concubines o Consort Li, mother of Crown Prince Hong (forced to commit suicide 456) o Consort Li, mother of Prince Changle o Consort Cao, mother of Prince Lue o Consort Juqu, mother of Prince Jian o Consort Yifu, mother of Prince Ruo o Consort Yue, mother of Prince Meng o Consort Xuan, mother of Prince Anping * Children o Tuoba Hong (拓拔弘), the Crown Prince (created 456), later Emperor Xianwen of Northern Wei o Tuboa Changle (拓拔长乐), initially the Prince of Jianchang (created 470), later Prince Li of Anle (created 475, forced to commit suicide 479) o Tuoba Lue (拓拔略), Prince Zhuang of Guangchuan (created 472, d. 480) o Tuoba Jian (拓拔简), Prince Shun of Qi Commandery (created 481, d. 499) o Tuoba Ruo (拓拔若), died early, posthumously created Prince Xiao of Hejian o Tuoba Meng (拓拔猛), Prince Kuang of Anfeng (created 481, d. 489) o Tuoba Anping (拓拔安平), Prince Ai of Han, died early o Princess Dunqiu o Princess Wuyi o Princess Jianxing o Princess Pingyang 6) XianWenDi 献文帝 TuobaHong 拓拔弘 466-471 Tian'an (天安 ti_n _n) 466-467 Huangxing (皇兴 huang x_ng) 467-471 Emperor Xianwen of Northern Wei ((北)魏献文帝) (454━476), personal name Tuoba Hong, was an emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei. He was the first emperor in Chinese history who, after retiring in favor of his son Emperor Xiaowen to become Taishang Huang (retired emperor) in 471, continued to hold onto power until his death in 476 -- when he was killed by his stepmother Empress Dowager Feng over his having executed a lover of hers. Family background Tuoba Hong was born in 454, as Emperor Wencheng's oldest son. His mother was Consort Li, who had previously been captured in war and had become a concubine of Tuoba Ren (拓拔仁) the Prince of Yongchang, a distant relative of Emperor Wencheng, who was executed in 453 after having been accused of crimes. After Tuoba Ren's death, she was seized and taken into the palace, where she became Emperor Wencheng's concubine. In 456, Emperor Wencheng created Tuoba Hong crown prince -- and, at the same time, according to Northern Wei customs, ordered Consort Li to commit suicide. Reign Under Yifu Hun's regency In 465, Emperor Wencheng died, and the 11-year-old Crown Prince Hong ascended the throne as Emperor Xianwen. Emperor Wencheng's wife Empress Feng was honored as empress dowager, and Emperor Xianwen's deceased mother Consort Li was posthumously honored as Empress Yuan. Power soon fell into the hands of the official Yifu Hun, who assumed dictatorial powers and killed a large number of other officials, including Yang Baoping (杨保平), Jia Airen (贾爱仁) the Duke of Pingyang, and Zhang Tiandu (张天度), Qiumuling Duohou (丘穆陵多侯), Tuoba Yu (拓拔郁) the Duke of Shunyang, and Emperor Wencheng's prime minister Buliugu Li. However, in 466, Empress Dowager Feng staged a coup and had Yifu arrested and executed. She assumed regency herself. Under Empress Dowager Feng's regency Empress Dowager Feng engaged Jia Xiu (贾秀), Gao Yun, and Gao Lu (高闾) as her assistants in the regency. Later, she also incorporated her brother Feng Xi (冯熙) into the decision-making circle. Empress Dowager Feng was soon presented with a major opportunity to expand Northern Wei territory, as also in 466, rival LS had a major dynastic succession struggle after Emperor Qianfei of LS was assassinated in 465. Emperor Qianfei's uncle Emperor Ming of LS was declared emperor in the capital Jiankang, while his brother Liu Zixun the Prince of Jin'an was declared emperor in early 466 in Xunyang (寻阳, in modern Jiujiang, Jiangxi). After Emperor Ming's forces defeated Liu Zixun's and captured and executed Liu Zixun in fall 466, the LS general Xue Andu (薛安都), the governor of Xu Province (徐州, modern northern Jiangsu and northern Anhui), who had initially declared for Liu Zixun, was apprehensive that he would be punished by Emperor Ming, and so decided to surrender to Northern Wei, and soon, he was joined by Bi Zhongjing (毕众敬) the governor of Yan Province (兖州, modern western Shandong) and Chang Zhenqi (常珍奇) the governor of Ru'nan Commandery (汝南, roughly modern Zhumadian, Henan). Empress Dowager Feng sent the general Weichi Yuan (尉迟元) to accept the surrenders of these LS generals and to secure the region just north of the Huai River, and Weichi subsequently defeated two attempts by Emperor Ming to recapture those provinces. She also sent the general Murong Baiyao (慕容白曜) to attack and try to capture LS's Qing (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong) and Ji (冀州, modern northwestern Shandong) Provinces, which were cut off from the rest of LS after Xue's defection, and by 469, both provinces fell into Northern Wei hands, and all of the regions north of the Huai River was by now Northern Wei territory. In 467, Emperor Xianwen's concubine Consort Li -- a daughter of his uncle Li Hui (李惠) and therefore his cousin -- bore his oldest child Tuoba Hong (different character than his own), and Empress Dowager Feng personally raised the young prince. She soon terminated her regency and returned imperial powers to Emperor Xianwen, who was 13 years old at this point. After assuming imperial authority As emperor, Emperor Xianwen was described as hardworking and appropriate in his awards and punishments -- in particular, in promoting honest officials and demoting corrupt ones, and it was said that only starting in his reign were Northern Wei officials praised for being honest. He was also said to be heavily into studies of religions and philosophies, including both Taoism and Buddhism. In 469, Emperor Xianwen created Tuoba Hong crown prince. As Tuoba Hong's mother Consort Li died the same year and was described in traditional histories to be missed by all in the palace, she was probably forced to commit suicide pursuant to Northern Wei customs. In 470, resentful that Murong Baiyao had flattered Yifu Hun while Yifu was in power, Emperor Xianwen, in an act that appeared to be uncharacteristic for his reign, falsely accused Murong Baiyao of treason and put him and his son Murong Ruyi (慕容如意) to death. Also in 470, an event would damage Emperor Xianwen's relationship with his stepmother Empress Dowager Feng. Empress Dowager Feng had taken the official Li Yi (李奕) as her lover. In 470, the official Li Xin (李欣), who was a close friend of Li Yi's brother Li Fu (李敷), was accused of corruption, and Emperor Xianwen became aware of the accusations even though Li Fu tried to suppress the reports. He had known about his stepmother's relationship with Li Yi and, while he had not taken any actions against it at that point, disapproved of it. He sented Li Xin to death, but then informed Li Xin that if he could report on crimes that Li Fu and Li Yi had committed, he would be spared. After initial reluctance, Li Xin did so, and another man named Fan Biao (范标) also did so. Emperor Xianwen then executed Li Fu and Li Xin. Empress Dowager Feng became resentful of Emperor Xianwen after that point. In 471, because of Emperor Xianwen's philosophical interests, he wanted to leave the throne to spend more time on his studies. He wanted to pass his throne to his uncle Tuoba Zitui (拓拔子推) the Prince of Jingzhao, who was highly praised by all officials. He therefore summoned an imperial council to discuss the matter. The officials largely opposed Emperor Xianwen's proposal, and suggested instead that if Emperor Xianwen wanted to leave the throne, he should pass the throne to Crown Prince Hong. He therefore did so, and the four-year-old crown prince took the throne as Emperor Xiaowen. Emperor Xianwen himself took the title of Taishang Huangdi (retired emperor). As retired emperor As retired emperor, however, Emperor Xianwen continued to be in control of the imperial regime, and all important matters were still submitted to him. He spent much time on criminal law matters, and during this time, the criminal cases generally were paid more attention, and while they took longer to process, the results were considered more just. In 476, still resentful of Emperor Xianwen, Empress Dowager Feng killed him. (Most historians, including Sima Guang, believed that she poisoned him, but another version indicated that Empress Dowager Feng readied assassins who, when Emperor Xianwen came to her palace to greet her, seized and smothered him.) She assumed regency over Emperor Xiaowen. Era names * Tian'an (天安 ti_n _n) 466-467 * Huangxing (皇兴 huang x_ng) 467-471
* Father
o Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei * Mother
o Consort Li (forced to commit suicide 456), posthumously honored as Empress Yuan * Major Concubines[1] o Consort Li (d. 469[2]), mother of Prince Hong, daughter of Li Hui (李惠) the Prince of Nan Commandery, posthumously honored as Empress Si o Consort Feng or Shiben, mother of Prince Xi o Consort Han or Budahan, mother of Princes Gan and Yong o Consort Meng, mother of Prince Yu o Consort Poduolo or Pan, mother of Prince Xie o Consort Gao, mother of Prince Xiang * Children o Tuoba Hong (拓拔宏), the Crown Prince (created 469), later Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei o Tuoba Xi (拓拔禧), the Prince of Xianyang (created 485, forced to commit suicide 501) o Tuoba Gan (拓拔干) (b. 469), initially the Prince of Henan (created 485, later Prince Ling of Zhao Commandery (created 494, d. 499) o Tuoba Yu (拓拔羽) (b. 470), Prince Hui of Guangling (created 485, died from injuries inflicted by lover's husband 501) o Tuoba Yong (拓拔雍), initially the Prince of Yingchuan (created 485), later Prince Wenmu of Gaoyang (created 494, killed by Erzhu Rong 528) o Tuoba Xie (拓拔勰), initially the Prince of Shipping (created 485), later Prince Wuxuan of Pengcheng (created 496, forced to commit suicide 508), posthumously honored as Emperor Wenmu o Tuoba Xiang (拓拔详), Prince Ping of Beihai (created 485, d. 504) o Princess Changshan o Princess Leliang o Princess Pengcheng o Princess Le'an 1. ^ Despite the substantial length of his reign, Emperor Xianwen never created an empress. The reason is unknown. 2. ^ Consort Li was probably forced to commit suicide pursuant to Northern Wei customs as the mother of the crown prince, as it was that year that her son was created crown prince, but historical accounts are not conclusive on the matter. 7) Xiao4(filial) Wen(culture) Di 孝文帝 Yuan2 Hong2(great)元宏471-499 Yanxing (延兴 yan x_ng) 471-476 Chengming (承明 cheng ming) 476 Taihe (太和 tii he) 477-499 Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei ((北)魏孝文帝) (467━499), personal name ne Tuoba Hong (拓拔宏), later Yuan Hong (元宏), was an emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei. Emperor Xiaowen implemented a drastic policy of sinicization, intending to centralize the government and make the multi-ethnic state more easy to govern. These policies included changing artistic styles to reflect Chinese preferences and forcing the population to speak the language and to wear Chinese clothes. He compelled his own Xianbei people and others to adopt Chinese surnames, and changed his own family surname from Tuoba to Yuan. He also encouraged intermarriage between Xianbei and Han. In 494, Emperor Xiaowen moved the Northern Wei capital from Pingcheng (平城, in modern Datong, Shanxi) to Luoyang, a city long acknowledged as a major center in Chinese history. The shift in the capital was mirrored by a shift in tactics from active defense to passive defense against the Rouran. While the capital was moved to Luoyang, the military elite remained centered at the old capital, widening the differences between the administration and the military. The population at the old capital remained fiercely conservative, while the population at Luoyang were much more eager to adopt Xiaowen's policies of sinicization. His reforms were met with resistance by the Xianbei elite. In 496, two plots by Xianbei nobles, one centered around his crown prince Yuan Xun, and one centered around his distant uncle Yuan Yi (元颐). By 497, Xiaowen had destroyed the conspiracies and forced Yuan Xun to commit suicide. Unfortunately for Emperor Xiaowen, his sinicization policies had their downsides─namely, he adopted the Jin Dynasty social stratification methods[citation needed], leading to incompetent nobles being put into positions of power while capable men of low birth not being able to advance in his government. Further, his wholesale adoption of Han culture and fine arts caused the nobles to be corrupt in order to afford the lifestyles of the Han elite, leading to further erosion to effective rule. By the time of his grandson Emperor Xiaoming, Northern Wei was in substantial upheaval due to agrarian revolts, and by 534 had been divided into two halves, each of which would soon be taken over by warlords. One of Xiaowen's enduring legacies was the establishment of the equal-field system in China, a system of government-allotted land that would last until the An Shi Rebellion in the mid Tang Dynasty (618-907). Early life and regency of Emperor Xianwen Tuoba Hong was born in 467, when his father Emperor Xianwen was himself young─at the age of 13, and not yet ruling by himself, but instead was emperor under the regency of Emperor Xianwen's stepmother Empress Dowager Feng. Tuoba Hong was Emperor Xianwen's oldest son. His mother Consort Li was the daughter of Li Hui, a mid-level official at the time, who was a brother of Emperor Xianwen's mother. Empress Dowager Feng, following Tuoba Hong's birth, ended her regency and returned power to Emperor Xianwen, while spending her time raising Tuoba Hong. In 469, at age two, Tuoba Hong was created crown prince. That same year, his mother Consort Li died─and while traditional histories did not describe how she died, it appeared likely that she was forced to commit suicide according to the Northern Wei tradition of forcing crown princes' mothers to commit suicide, for it was written that the entire palace mourned her bitterly. In 471, Emperor Xianwen, who favored Taoist and Buddhist philosophies, tired of the throne, and considered passing the throne to his uncle Tuoba Zitui (拓拔子推) the Prince of Jingzhao. After opposition by virtually all high level officials, however, Emperor Xianwen was still resolved to pass the throne to someone else, but decided to instead yield the throne to Crown Prince Hong. He subsequently did so, and Crown Prince Hong took the throne as Emperor Xiaowen, while Emperor Xianwen took the title of Taishang Huang (retired emperor), although, due to Emperor Xiaowen's young age, Emperor Xianwen continued to be in actual control of important matters. When needed on the frontlines against Rouran, he conducted military campaigns himself, while leaving important officials in charge of the capital Pingcheng (平城, in modern Datong, Shanxi) with Emperor Xiaowen. In 476, Empress Dowager Feng, resentful that Emperor Xianwen had put her lover Li Yi (李奕) to death in 470, had him assassinated. (Most historians, including Sima Guang, believed that she poisoned him, but another version indicated that Empress Dowager Feng readied assassins who, when Emperor Xianwen came to her palace to greet her, seized and smothered him.) She assumed regency over Emperor Xiaowen and assumed the title of Grand Empress Dowager. Regency of Grand Empress Dowager Feng After Grand Empress Dowager Feng reassumed regency, she was said to be more dictatorial than she was before, but intelligent in her decisions and frugal in her living. Not only was she highly literate, but she also was capable in mathematics. However, she trusted several eunuchs and permitted them to interfere in governmental matters. Further, she greatly promoted her lovers Wang Rui (王□) and Li Chong (李冲) -- both of whom were apparently talented officials, but whose promotions were beyond what their talents and contributions called for. She balanced her reputation by also promoting some honored officials who were not her lovers. Because she was concerned that she would be criticized for what was seen as immoral conduct, she punished those whom she perceived to be criticizing her or parodying her behavior with severe punishment, including death. One of her victims was Li Xin, who had contributed to her prior lover Li Yi's death, as she had Li Xin put to death in 477. Fearful that Emperor Xiaowen's mother's clan would try to take power, she falsely accused his grandfather Li Hui (李惠) the Prince of Nan Commandery of treason in 478 and had him and his clan slaughtered. She apparently accelerated the policy of Sinicization, which included social stratification, as she issued an edict in 478 requiring people to marry in their social classes. In 479, after rival LS's throne was usurped by the general Xiao Daocheng, who established Southern Qi as its Emperor Gao, Northern Wei commissioned Liu Chang (刘昶) the Prince of Danyang, a LS prince who had fled to Northern Wei in 465, with an army and promising him support to rebuild LS. However, Liu Chang's abilities were not up to task, and he was never able to gain much following in the border regions to mount a major drive to reestablish LS. By 481, the campaign had fizzled. Also in 481, the Buddhist monk Faxiu (法秀) tried to start a popular uprising at Pingcheng, but was discovered, captured, and executed. Some officials advocating the execution of all Buddhist monks, but Grand Empress Dowager Feng refused. Also that year, she started the building of her future tomb at Fang Mountain (方山), near Pingcheng, leaving instructions that after she died that it would be unnecessary for her to be buried with her husband Emperor Wengcheng, who was buried near the old Northern Wei capital Shengle (盛乐, in modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia). Later that year, a new criminal code that she commissioned Gao Lu to write was completed─with 832 sections, 16 of them prescribing clan-slaughter as penalty, 235 of them prescribing personal death penalty, and 377 prescribing other forms of punishment. He also introduced to China the cultures of South Korea, including constellation creation and pop music. As the years went by, as Emperor Xiaowen grew in age, he appeared[weasel words] to gradually assume more and more power. Sometime during the process, Grand Empress Dowager Feng apparently became apprehensive of his abilities and therefore had him detained and considered deposing him in favor of his brother Tuoba Xi (拓拔禧), but after her attendants persuaded her otherwise, she did not carry out such actions. While Grand Empress Dowager Feng never formally returned imperial powers to him, by about 483 he appeared to be fairly in control of the government, although Grand Empress Dowager Feng continued to retain substantial powers. Indeed, it was by her order that that year, after Emperor Xiaowen's concubine Consort Lin bore his oldest son, Tuoba Xun, that Consort Lin was forced to commit suicide pursuant to Northern Wei customs. She raised Tuoba Xun herself. In 485, after Emperor Xiaowen created his younger brothers princes, Grand Empress Dowager Feng established an imperial school for these princes. In 486, perhaps as both a sign of Sinicization and demonstration of Emperor Xiaowen's authority, he began to assume traditional Chinese imperial clothing, including a robe with dragon patterns and a tassled hat. As Emperor Xiaowen was raised by Grand Empress Dowager Feng, he also became very close to the family of her brother Feng Xi (冯熙). For some time, he took two of his daughters as concubines, but one of them soon died of illness, and the other, Consort Feng Run, also suffered a major illness and was sent back to her father house, where she became a Buddhist nun. The power-sharing arrangement between stepgrandmother and stepgrandson could perhaps be illustrated by an incident in 489, when Emperor Wencheng's younger brothers Tuoba Tianci (拓拔天赐) the Prince of Ruyin and Tuoba Zhen (拓拔桢) the Prince of Nan'an were accused of corruption, a death offense. Grand Empress Dowager Feng and Emperor Xiaowen jointly convened an imperial council to discuss their punishment. Grand Empress Dowager Feng opened by asking the officials, "Do you believe that we should care about familial relations and destroy law, or to disregard familial relations and follow the law?" The officials largely pleaded for the princes' lives. After Grand Empress Dowager Feng fell silent, Emperor Xiaowen stated: "What the two princes committed is unpardonable, but the Grand Empress Dowager takes after the brotherly love that Gaozong [Emperor Wengcheng's Temple name] had. Further, the Prince of Nan'an is filially pious toward his mother. Therefore, the two will be spared the death penalty, but their offices and titles will be stripped from them, and they will be reduced to commoner status with no political rights." In 490, Grand Empress Dowager Feng died, and she was buried with magnificent honors. Emperor Xiaowen was so distraught that he was unable to take in food or water for five days, and subsequently observed a three-year mourning period for her, notwithstanding officials' pleas for him to shorten the mourning period in accordance with rules that Emperor Wen of Han had set. Early personal reign After Grand Empress Dowager Feng's death, Emperor Xiaowen not only continued the sinicization campaign, but carried it out in earnest, changing many laws and customs of the Northern Wei states to conform with Han, particularly Confucian, customs. While he sought out his mother Consort Li's cousins (Consort Li's brothers had been executed with their father Li Hui) and rewarded them with relatively low offices, he later retracted the rewards, bringing criticism that he was treating the Fengs with too much kindness and not treating the Lis with sufficient kindness. in 492, in conformance with past dynasties' tradition, Emperor Xiaowen demoted the many princes in the state, unless they were descendants of the dynasty founder Emperor Daowu, to the titles of duke, with two exceptions: Baba Guan (拔拔观) the Prince of Shangdang, because of the great accomplishments of his grandfather Baba Daosheng (拔拔道生), was allowed to remain prince; and the former LS prince Liu Chang the Prince of Danyang, while having his own rank reduced to Duke of Qi Commandery, was given a special title, which appeared to be non-inheritable, of Prince of Song. In 493, Emperor Xiaowen married another daughter of Feng Xi, Feng Qing, as empress. Also in 493, Emperor Xiaowen began the first of a number of campaigns that he would conduct against Southern Qi -- although in the case of this campaign, it was intended to instead allow him to move the capital from Pingcheng south to the Han heartland of Luoyang, to further his sinicization campaign. As he reached Luoyang in the late fall, he ordered a continued advance despite heavy rains, and then, when the Xianbei officials who opposed the campaign tried again to stop him, he offered a compromise─that the capital be moved to Luoyang, and the campaign be abandoned. The officials agreed. He also entrusted the matters of changing Xianbei ceremonies and music to Han ceremonies to the official Wang Su (王肃), who had only recently defected from Southern Qi. in 494, Emperor Xiaowen made a return to Pingcheng, and, for reasons that are not clear, reopened the discussions on whether to move the capital to Luoyang. This time, the Xianbei officials largely opposed the move, but Emperor Xiaowen overruled them and continued moving the governmental agencies to Luoyang, although maintaining a fairly substantial governmental presence at Pingcheng for it to serve as the secondary capital. To alleviate the concerns that the move from Pingcheng to Luoyang would cause a supply shortage of horses and other livestock, he had the general Yuwen Fu (宇文福) set up a large livestock grazing zone at Heyang (河阳, in modern Jiaozuo and Xinxiang, Henan). Late personal reign Late in 494, under the stated reason that Southern Qi's Emperor Ming had usurped the throne (from his grandnephew Xiao Zhaowen), Emperor Xiaowen prepared a major campaign against Southern Qi, departing Luoyang about new year 495. He initially put the important cities Shouyang (寿阳, in modern Lu'an, Anhui) and Yiyang (义阳, in modern Xinyang, Henan) under siege, but could not capture them easily, and battles that his armies conducted against Southern Qi armies were largely indecisive. By late spring 495, he abandoned the campaign. In summer 495, Emperor Xiaowen issued a number of edicts that made what was stated policy official law─that Xianbei clothing and language be prohibited, and that the Han clothing and language be used instead. (An exemption was given to those over 30.) In spring 496, he also ordered that the Xianbei family names be changed to Han ones, changing his own clan's name from Tuoba to Yuan. He also strengthened the social stratefication that had already been underway for some time, making eight Xianbei clans and five Han clans particularly honored, and ordering that all political offices be given by clan status, not by abilities, despite heavy opposition by his official Li Chong. The particularly honored clans were: * Xianbei o Mu (穆, originally Qiumuling) o Lu (陆, originally Buliugu) o He (贺, originally Helai) o Liu (刘, originally Dugu) o Lou (楼, originally Helou) o Yu (于, originally Wuniuyu) o Xi (奚, originally Daxi) o Yu (尉, originally Yuchi) * Han o Lu (卢)
o Cui (崔) o Zheng (郑) o Wang (王) o Li (李)
Emperor Xiaowen went as far as ordering his six younger brothers to demote their current wives to concubine status, and taking the daughters of officials from the five Han clans to be their new wives, an action heavily criticized by historians. Sometime prior to fall 496, Emperor Xiaowen had, perhaps due to recommendation from Empress Feng, welcomed her older sister Feng Run back to the palace to again be his concubine, and Feng Run, believing herself to be the older sister, refused to yield to Empress Feng and began to find ways to undermine her position. In summer 496, Emperor Xiaowen deposed Empress Feng, who then went to Yaoguang Temple (瑶光寺) and became a Buddhist nun. Also in fall 496, the crown prince Yuan Xun, who did not adjust well to Han customs or the much hotter weather in Luoyang, plotted with his followers to flee back to Pingcheng, perhaps to hold that city against his father. His plot, however, was discovered, and Emperor Xiaowen, after asking his brother Yuan Xi (元禧) the Prince of Xianyang to cane Yuan Xun with him, deposed Yuan Xun. However, a second plot quickly arose, organized by the officials Mu Tai (穆泰) and Lu Rui (陆□), who intended to again hold the northern regions against the emperor. However, their plot was revealed by Emperor Xiaowen's distant uncle Yu Yi (元颐) the Prince of Yangping, whom they had intended to make their leader but who had only pretended to go along with their plot. Emperor Xiaowen sent a force commanded by his cousin Yuan Cheng (元澄) the Prince of Rencheng to Pingcheng, putting down the plot before it started in earnest, and putting Mu and Lu to death. In spring 497, Emperor Xiaowen created another son, Yuan Ke, crown prince. Believing in reports by the official Li Biao (李彪), who then had the former Crown Prince Xun under house arrest, that Yuan Xun was still plotting rebellion, he forced Yuan Xun to commit suicide. In fall 497, Emperor Xiaowen created Feng Run to be empress, and when Yuan Ke's mother Consort Gao subsequently died, common bellief was that Empress Feng had her secretly poisoned so that she could raise Yuan Ke herself. Also in fall 497, Emperor Xiaowen launched another major attack against Southern Qi, this time first concentrating on the city Wancheng (宛城, in modern Nanyang, Henan). While he was able to capture Wancheng and Xinye (新野, also in modern Nanyang), the battles were still largely indecisive. During his absence, a major conflict erupted between Li Chong and Li Biao in the capital Luoyang, and Li Chong, after putting Li Biao under arrest, died in anger. Partly because of this and partly because, once Southern Qi's Emperor Ming died in fall 498, that he should not continue to attack a country that was mourning for its emperor, he ended the campaign in fall 498. At that same time, he himself was falling ill, and he entrusted the important matters to his brother Yuan Xie the Prince of Pengcheng, although he subsequently recovered and was able to return to Luoyang. Meanwhile, however, in Emperor Xiaowen's absence, Empress Feng had been carrying on an affair with the attendant Gao Pusa (高菩萨). When she, also in Emperor Xiaowen's absence, tried to force Emperor Xiaowen's sister Princess Pengcheng, whose husband Liu Chengxu (刘承绪, Liu Chang's son) had died earlier, to marry her brother Feng Su (冯夙) the Duke of Beiping, Princess Pengcheng fled out of Luoyang and arrived at Emperor Xiaowen's camp, accusing Empress Feng of adultery. Once Emperor Xiaowen arrived back in Luoyang, he arrested Gao and Empress Feng's assistant Shuang Meng (双蒙) and interrogated them. He then interrogated Empress Feng personally as well, concluding that she had in fact committed adultery. However, claiming that he did not want to shame the Feng clan, he did not depose her, but refused to see her again and also ordered Crown Prince Ke to not to see her again either. Emperor Xiaowen, despite his own weakened physical state, then decided to again advance south to react against a retaliation campaign by the Southern Qi general Chen Xianda (陈显达). He was able to repel and defeat Chen, but while on the campaign, he died. Yuan Xie and Yuan Cheng kept his death secret until his body could be returned to Luoyang, and then announced his death. Yuan Ke succeeded to the throne as Emperor Xuanwu. By Emperor Xiaowen's will, Empress Feng was forced to commit suicide. |