Book Jainism in Buddhist Literature Author Dr. Hiralal Jain

Ajita's philosophy can be compared with the philosophy of Carvaka. In the Brahmajala Sutta it is classified as Ucchedavada (the doctrine of anihilation after death) or Tam Jivam tam sariram (the doctrine of identity of the soul and body). In the Mahabodhi Jataka, it is said, that Ajita was born, in a previous birth, as one of the five heretical councillors to the king of Varanasi. Then, too, he preached the doctrine of Ucchedavada. He was called Kesakambali because he wore a blanket of human hair, which is described as being the most miserable garment. It was cold in cold weather, and hot in the hot, foul smelling and uncouth72.

(iv) Pakudha Kaccayana

According to Pakudha Kaccayana, the seven elementary categories are neither made nor ordered, neither caused nor constructed; they are barren, as firm as mountains, as stable as pillars. They neither move nor develop; they do not injure one another, and one has no effect on the joy and sorrow of another. What are the seven? Earth, Water, Fire, Air, joy and Sorrow, with life as the seventh...No man slays or causes to slay, hears or causes to hear, knows or causes to know. Even if a man cleaves another's head with a sharp sword, he does not take life, for the sword-cut merely passes through the seven elements73.

In the Brahmjala Sutta this theory is classified as both Akiriyavada and Sassatavada. According to Pakudha, good or bad deeds do not affect the elements which are eternal. Like Ucchedavada, this teaching is also criticised in Buddhist literature.

Buddhaghosa says that Pakudha Kaccayana avoided the use of cold water, using always hot water. When hot water was no available, he did not wash. If he crossed a stream he would consider it as a sin, and would make expiation by constructing a mound of earth74.

(v) Sanjaya Belatthiputta

Sanjaya Belatthiputta was the preacher of Ajnavada or Agnosticism. He says that if "you asked me, "Is there another world?" and if I believed that there was, I should tell you so. But that is not what I say. I do not say that is so; nor do I say that it is not so75."

It is said that the Elders Sariputta and Moggalana were disciples of Sanjaya before they were converted to Buddhism76. Moggalana and Sanjaya are mentioned as Jaina Munis in Jaina literature77.

The jaina doctrine of Syadvada is said to have been influenced by the teachings of Sanjaya. According to Malalaseker, "It is probable that Sanjaya suspended his judgements only with regard to those questions, the answers to which must always remain a matter of speculation. It my be that he wished to impress on his followers the fact that the final answer to these questions lay beyond the domain of speculation, and that he wished to divert their attention from fruitless inquiry and direct it towards the preservation of mental equanimity78". But as a matter of fact Sanjays's teachings are based on indeterminable characters, while the Syadvada has a definite answer. That is why the Jaina philosophers criticised Sanjaya's theory79. We can, however, say that whether Sanjaya was a Jaina muni or not, his teachings seem to be influenced to some extent by the Jaina doctrines. The sutrakratanga does not mention his name in this context. Sanjaya's view is criticised in Pali literature as an Amaravikkhepavad a theory of eel-wrigglers80).

(vi) Nigantha Nataputta:

In the Samannaphala Sutta, Nigantha Nata-Putta is introduced as the teacher of Catuyamasamvara. "A Nigantha is surrounded by the barrier of four-fold restraint. How is he surrounded ?...He practises restraint with regard to water, he avoids all sin, by avoiding sin his sins are washed away, and he is filled with the sense of all sins are washed away, and he is filled with the sense of all sins avoided81...So surrounded by the barrier of fourfold restraint his mind is perfected, controlled, and firm82.

As pointed out by Jacobi this reference to the teaching of Nataputta is very obscure83. Catuyamasamvara as mentioned in the Samannaphala Sutta84 consists of the four characteristics of the Jainas. The real Catuyamasamvara belonging to the Parsvanatha tradition, is found else-where in the Pali Canon itself.

In response to the Buddha's question Asibandhakaputta Gamani said that the Nigantha Nataputta preached thus to his followers or Savakas: a slayer of living creature (panam atipateti), a stealer of a thing (not given to him) (adinnam adiyati), a subject of sensual passion wrongly (kamesu miccha carati), and one who tells a lie (musa bhanati) are all condemned.85

Here are mentioned the four causes of sin. In the Anguttara aa the five ways of falling into sin, according to Nigantha Nataputta, are outlined. They are: destruction of animates (panatipati hoti staking what is not given (adinnadayi hoti), passionate enjoyment of evil (abrahmacari hoti), speaking a lie (musavadi hoti), and living on liquor and drink (suramerayamajjappamadatthayi hoti).86

Both these references are neither correctly recorded nor in order. The Nikayas appear to have confused between the Vratas of Parsvanatha and Mahavira. The Parigraha (attachment to the mundane affairs), a fourth cause of sins according to the Parsvanatha tradition, included the passionate enjoyment, was not mentioned in the Nikayas, while the Abrahmacarya, separated from Parigraha by Nigantha Nataputta, is mentioned there.

Non-violence is the fundamental principle of the Jainas which is recorded in the Pali Canon. The Niganthas do not use cold water as living being exist therein.87 They take a vow not to go beyond a limited area, so that the possibility of destroying life while moving about is reduced to a minimum.88 The Kayadanda (Physical deeds) is more blamable than Manodanda (mental deeds) in their oppinion.89 Intention (bhava or manodanda) is the main source of violence, and if the injury is caused by the body intentionally (bhavena), it will be considered more blamble. Meat-eating is completely prohibited in jainism. It is said that while Siha Senapati served meat to Buddha and his followers, the Nlganthas had protested and criticised such activities.90

Nakedness or nudity (acelakatva or Digambaratva) with a mind controlled and restrained from all sorts of attachment and the practice of severe austerities with right knowledge are the main sources of omniscience and salvation.91 Pali literature too records the Jaina claim to the omniscience of Nigantha nataputta.92 The Pali Canon is also familiar with the rudiments of Syadvada and Navatattvas. Buddhist philosophical literature which developed later establishes and refutes the more advanced Jaina doctrines about epistemology and logic.

The foregoing is a brief description of the leaders of Sramanism as recorded in Pali literature. From this somewhat scanty data it is clear that their teachings can be grouped under two main headings:--

(i) Ajivikism as taught by Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala, and Pakudha Kaccayana and

(ii) Jainism as taught by Parsvanatha and Nigantha Nataputta.

The doctrine of Sanjaya Belatthiputta does not fall into either of the above categories. But as Nalinaksa Dutt has shown, Sanjaya's teachings are "only a stepping stone to that of Buddha93." We shall now take into consideration the interrelationship among the three prominent religious systems" Jainism, Ajivikism, and Buddhism.

Jainism and Ajivikism:

Makkhali Gosala, the founder of the Ajivika sect, was a follower of Jainism, before he founded his separate school.94 It is, therefore, not unnatural for his teachings to be influenced by Jainism. Ajivikas and Jainas share a set of common monastic rules. Both were normally naked and both followed the same method of eating.95 That is the reason why the Pali literature could not make a clear distinction between the Niganthas and the Ajivikas. The Sutta Nipata96 distinguishes the Ajivikas from other sects, whereas the Majjhima Nikaya97 includes all the heretical teachers in the general category of Ajivikas.

Buddhaghosa in his Dhammapada Commentary98 describes an ascetic who knocks at the doors of all the sects including the Ajivikas and the Niganthas. But the same work refers indiscriminately to Nagga-samana, Ajivika and Acelaka99. Similarly the Divyavadana100, in the story of Asoka, seems to use the term Ajivika and Nigantha (Nirgrantha) synonymously.

Chinese and Japanese Buddhist literature classes the Ashibikas, (i. e. Ajivikas) with the Nikendabaras or Nirgranthas as practising severe penance. "They both hold that the penalty for sinful life must sooner or later be paid so that the life to come may be free for enjoyment. Thus their practices were ascetic. Fasting, silence, immovability and burning themselves upto the neck were their expressions of penance.101

Hoernle identifies the Ashibikas with the Digambara Jainas. In support of his theory, he refers to Halayudha102 which "enumerates a large number of names of the two divisions, the Svetambaras and Digambaras...The latter are also known as the Ajiva, which is only a shorter form of Ajivika..It is evident now, from what has been said, that the terms Niggantha and Ajivika denote the two Jaina orders which are known to us as Svetambaras and Digambaras103."

Hoernle's further suggestion is that the term Nirgrantha implied only a Svetambara Jaina. This conclusion is not supported by any evidence. The verse quoted by Hoernle does not contain exactly synonymous words. It mentions the names of various schools. Basham remarks in this connection that the evidence of both Halayudha and Yadava, including the Nirgrantha in the same category as the Nagnata, should be adequate to disprove the theory. The term was obviously used for a Jaina of any type104.

"Nigantha" or "Nirgrantha" was always used with reference to Digambaras in the earlier works. Its application to Svetambaras was a later development subsequent to their breaking away from the original school of Jainism in the early centuries B. C.

Silanka, the commentator of the Sutrakrtanga, says: "They are the Ajivikas who follow the doctrine of Gosala, or Botikas (i. e. Digambara.105"). On the basis of this reference Hoernle righty concluded that the later Ajivikas merged with the Digambara Jainas. He says "Silanka states that the reference is to the Ajivikas or Digambaras. Seeing that, in his comment on another passage of the same work, he identifies the Ajivikas with the Terasiyas (Sanskrit Trairasikas). It follows that in silanka's view the followers of Gosala, the Ajivikas, the Terasikas, and the Digambaras were the same class of religious mendicants."106

Basham, too, appears to support this view when he says that the Ajivika survived in Madras, Mysore and Andhra until the 14th century A. D., and that the original atheism of Makkhali Gosala merged with that of the Digambara Jainas.107

But as a matter of fact Silanka could not make a clear statement that Ajivikas and Digambaras were the same. It seems that on the basis of nakedness, Halayudha Silanka etc. referred to the words which have the same meaning.108

Jainism and Buddhism

As both Jainism and Buddhism were taught within the same geographical area during the same historical period, a high degree of mutual ideological influence was inevitable. The wandering of the Buddha for six years in search of enlightenment also would have brought him into contact with Jainistic dogmas.

Some ideas are found to be common to both Jainism and Buddhism. Buddhism is based on the Four Noble Truths (Cattari ariyasaccani), viz. the Truth of suffering (Dukkhasacca), the Truth of the Arising of Suffering (Dukkha-samudayasacca), and the Truth of the Path leading to the Annihilation of Suffering (Dukkha-nirodhagamani-patipada-ariyasacca). Jainism, too, teaches substantially the same doctrines. During the twelve meditations (Dvadasanupreksa) a Nigantha thinks of the nature of the world and soul. In this way he tries to abstain from attachment to anything so that he could attain the state of Vitaragatva (freedom from all desires). Avidya (ignorance), as in Buddhism, is the root cause of Karmic bondage, and release is possible through Right Vision (Samyagdarsana), Right Knowledge (Samyagjnana), and Right Conduct (Samyagcaritra109).

Buddhism extols the four meditations (Bhavana), viz. Metta (Friendship) Karuna (Compassion), Mudita (delight), and Upekkha (Indifference110). The Jain Scripture declares that these should be meditated upon by everybody (Maitripramodakarunyamadhyasthani ca satvagunadhikaklisyamanavinayesu). They are realizable through concentration (yogakkhamani nibbanam ajjhagamam), and are free from ageing (ajaram) Salvation can be attained with the cessation of the chain of causation. Nibbana, in Jainism, is a condition of the pure soul, free from all bondage of karmas, peaceful, enlightened and eternal111. Both religions believe that every being experiences fruits of his good and bad deeds in the present or future life and rebirth continues till the attainment of salvation.

Non-violence (Ahimsa) is also a common feature of both Jainism and Buddhism. Buddhism, like Jainism, stipulates that its adherents should abstain from all forms of violence (Himsa). But Jainism appears more strict in this respect. The eating of flesh, which is not altogether forbidden in Buddhism, is completely forbidden in Jainism. In other words, non-violence is the foundation of Jain religion and philosophy. Syadvada and Nayavada, the spirit of reconciliation, is an integral part of its theme.

Both Jainism and Buddhism hold that the Universe came into being without the intervention of the creator-God. Worshiping of the images of their sages is a common feature in both religions.

As regards the dissimalirities between them, they are so fundamental that any positive influence of Jainism on Buddhism or vi ce versa in difficult to establish. Buddhism does not believe in soul, whereas Jainism regards it as an essential part of human personality and its purity is essential for the attainment of salvation. According to Buddhism, a thing which comes into being perishes in the next moment. All the psychical factors like feeling, cognition, names and concepts are discrete and momentary. The first moment is regarded as the material cause (upadana) and the second the effect (upadeya). The combined stream of Upadna and Upadeyna give rise to the false notion of a permanent self.

On the other hand, Jainism, in spite of admitting the obvious psycho-physical changes, adheres to the belief that both jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter) are eternal. It maintains that only the modes (paryayas) of a substance are subject to change while the substance with its essential quality (guna) is unchanging and abiding. The Buddhist theory of flux has been, therefore, criticised bitterly by the Jain philosophers.

These two religions resort to a common terminology. For instance, the word nigantha is used for Jainism in both scriptures. Buddhism also regards "sabbaganthappahina"112 as the nature of Nibbana, Pudgala is used only in these two religions but with different meanings. In Jainism it means as inanimate thing, while Buddhism gives it the sense of Atma or Jiva. Likewise, Arhat, Buddha, Asava, samvara, Sammaditthi (samyagdrasti or Samyagjnana) Micchaditthi. Tisarana, Naraka, etc. are common to both the religious systems.

According to the Pali Canon, the Buddha himself had a more favourable impression of Nigantha Nataputta and Jainism than of any other contemporary teacher or teaching,113 though he condemned the Niganthas at a number of places,114 Apart from the fact that they arose from the same social milieu, the emphasis they both laid on ethical principles and on the empirical testing of truth seems to have made them mutually respectful to each other.

Conclusion:

The foregoing discussion has brought us to the conclusion that the Sramana cultural system led by the Jainas existed perhaps prior to Brahmana cult and that most of the leaders of different sects of that time were influenced by the Jaina dogmas. Jocobi came to the following conclusion on the interrelationship of these religious teachers :

The preceding four Tirth nkaras (Makkhali Gosala, Purana Kassapa and others) appear to have adopted some or other doctrines or practices of the Jaina system, probably from the Jainas themselves...Here it appears that Jaina ideas and practices must have been current at the time of Mahavira and independently of him. This combined with other arguments, leads us to the opinion that the Nirgranthas (Jainas) were really in existence long before Mahavira, who was the reformer of the already existing sect."115
2. JAINISM AND ITS LITERATURE

Jainism is a religion based on sound scientific reasoning. It stresses the perfection of knowledge, and teaches as its fundamental doctrine, the ethical evolution of man. It illuminates the path of liberation and persuades its adherents to seek real happiness in the immortal soul. Mental purity, not the external appearance, is the source of constant tranquillity and emancipation in Jaina opinion. Non-violence is primary principle of the Jaina religion and philosophy.

Origin of Jainism:

According to Jaina belief, Jainism is both eternal and universal. It is open not only to human beings of all castes and classes, but even to animals, devas, and souls in hells. According to the Jaina tradition, twenty-four Tirthankaras appear in every kalpa1. Rsabhadeva is said to be the first Tirthankara of the present era. He is believed to have taught seventy-two arts (Bavattarim kalao) to men and sixty-four to women. The beginnings of human civilization, thousands of aeons ago, are associated with him2.

Antiquity of Jainism :

Jainism is believed to be a pre-Vedic religion. Jainas are referred to in early Vedic literature by the name of Vratyas3. They are identified as the members of Sramana cultural system which is led by Jainas. The Rgveda4 the oldest scripture of the Hindus refers to Rsabha, perhaps Rsabhadeva, frequently. Besides, the Hindu Puranas5 contain accounts of his life and these tally with Jaina accounts. As regards archaeological and epigraphical evidence, the Kayotsarga (dedication of body)-Yoga pose of sitting and standing images engraved on the seals of Mohanjodro, Harappa and Lothal are identified by some scholars as Rsabha images6. The Hathigumpha inscription of king Kharavela refers to an image of Jina which was taken away to Magadha by king Nanda7. Similar evidence is found with regard to other Tirthankaras who, too, had been historical personages of immense reputation in philosophical and religious circles.7

The modern scholars appear to agree with the view that Jainism is the oldest of Non-Aryan group. For instance, Dr. Zimmer says: "There is truth in the Jaina idea, their religion goes back to remote antiquity, the antiquity in question being that of the Pre-Aryan, so-called Dravidian period, which has recently been Dramatically disillusioned by the discovery of a series of great Late Stone Age cities in the Indus valley dating from the third and even perhaps fourth millennium B.C."8

Antiquity of Jainism and Buddhist literature

There was a time when European Scholars regarded Jainism as a religion of medieval advent or an off-shoot of Buddhism9. Jacobi was the first to etsablish in 1884 the antiquity of Jainism as an independent and pre-Buddhistic religion on the basis of the data available from the Pali Canon. He regarded Parsvanatha as a historical person and the founder of Jainism. But he also remarked: "But there is nothing to prove that Parsva was the founder of Jainism. Jaina tradition is unanimous in making Rsabha, the first Tirthankara (its founder)... There may be something historical in the tradition which makes him the first Tirthankara.10"

The Pali Canon refers to Nigantha Nataputta as an elder heretical teacher. and is also familiar with some characteristics of Parsvanatha tradition. Besides, Buddhist literature mentions Rsabhadeva, Padma, Canda, Puspadanta, Vimala, Dharma and Aristanemi, the Jaina Tirthankaras.

In Pali literature various doctrines of Jainas have been aknowledged. They belong to Parsvanatha or Aristanemi, if not to earlier Tirthankaras. Parsvanatha was known as Purisajaniya or the distinguished man according to the Anguttara Nikaya (P.290). The Dharmottarapradipa (P.286) also refers to both Parsvanatha and Aristanemi. The Catuyamasamvara, which is attributed to the Nigantha Nataputta in the Samannaphala Sutta, is in reality a teaching of Parsvanatha. Some Niganthas mentioned in Pali literature are apparently followers of parsvanatha. For instance, Vappa34, Upali35, Abhaya36, Aggivessayana saccaka37, Digha tapassi38, Asibandhakaputta Gamini39, Deva Ninka40, Upatikkha41, Siha42, are lay followers while Sacca, Lola, Avavadika, Patacara43 etc. are lay followers while Sacca, Lola, Avavadika, Patacara43 etc. are lay women followers of the Parsvanatha tradition. They had later on become the followers of the Nigantha Nataputta44. Jocobi, therefore, says : `that' Parsva was a historical person is now admitted by all as very probable.