Book Jainism in Buddhist Literature Author Dr. Hiralal Jain

The mixture of prose and verse, fantastic descriptions of the hells, preaching with the help of legends, parables, tales, dialogues and ballads, are the main characetristics of both Pali and Jain Scriptures. But in comparison with Pali literature, Jain literature is presented in a rather uninteresting style. Winternitz has pointed out that "with rare exceptions, the sacred books of the Jainas are written in a dry-as-dust, matter of fact, didactic tone, and as far as we know them hitherto, are seldom instilled with that general human interest which so many Buddhist texts possess. Hence, important as they are for the specialist, they cannot claim the interest of the general reader to anything approaching so great an extent.110

The language of the Canonical literature is a Prakrt called Ardhamagadhi. The verses, like the Buddhist Canon, present more archaic forms. But the Commentaries (Nijjutti, Bhasa, Curni, and Tika) are in both Prakrt (Jaina Maharastri) and Sanskrit.

Digambara Cononical Literature

The Digambaras believe that the Cannon as preached by Nigantha Nataputta is no longer available as it was lost during the famine. But they have preserved in their earlist works, written by the ancient Acharyas, detailed accounts of the structure and the contents of their Cannon. According to such accounts the Digambara Canonical literature is divided into two groups: the Angapravista and the Angabahya :-

(A) The Angapravista :

The Angapravista is of twelve kinds which are similar to the twelve Angas of the Svetambaras with the exception that the last Anga "Drastipravada" is divided into five parts: (i) Five Parikarma; (a) Candraprajnapti, (b) Suryaprajnapti, (c) Jambudvipaprajnapti, (d) Dvipaprajnapti and (e) Vyakhya Prajnapti. (2) Sutra (3)four, Anuyogas (a)Prathamanuyoga, (b) Karananuyoga, (c) Dravyanuyoga and (d) Carananuyoga, (4) Purvagatas are fourteen: (a) Utapadapurva, (b) Agrayani, (c) Viryanuvada, (d) Astinastipravada, (e) Jnanapravada, (f) Satpravada, (g) Atmapravada, (h) Karmapravada, (i) Prtyakhyana (j) Vidyanuvada, (k) Kalyanavada, (l) Pranavada (m) Kriyavada and (n) Trilokavindusara. (5) Five Cnlikas: (a)Jalagata, (b) Sthalagata, (c) Mayagata, (d) Rupagata, and (e) Akasagata.

(B) The Angabahya Sruta.

The Angabahya Sruta is divided into fourteen Prakirnakas: (1) Samayika, (2) Samstava, (3) Vandana (4) Pratikramana (5) Vinaya (6) Krtikarma (7) Dasavaikalika (8) Uttaradhyayana (9) Kalpavyavahara (10) Kalpakalpa, (11) Mahakalpa (12) Pundarika. (13) Mahapundarika, and (14) Nisiddhika.111

The fact that the Digambara and the Svetambara traditions agree on fundamental features of the structure of the Jaina Canon establishes beyond doubt:

(a) that a Jaina Canon had been compiled, arranged and recognized before the schism, and

(b) that thet traditional divisions were remembered even after the Digambaras rejected the Svetambara Canon as a later innovation.

Acharya Parampara

The Digambara tradition maintains that its Canon was lost gradually as the Acharyas who knew one or sveral Angas passed away without ansuring that their pupils had mastered the Angas. An Acharya-parampara of such pupils, after the death of Mahavira, is referred to by Yatirsabha, according to which Gautamasvami, Sudharmasvami and Jambusvami were Kevalins (having perfect knowledge of Canon) for 62 years, Nandi, Nandimitra, Aparajita, Govardhana and Bhadrabahu were Srutakevalin for 100 years, Visakha, Prosthila, Ksatriya, Jaya, Naga, Siddhartha, Dhrtisena, Vijaya, Buddhila, Gangadeva and Sudharama were knowers of eleven Angas and ten Purvas for 183 years, Naksatra, Jayapala, Pandu, Dhruvasena and Kansa were knowers of eleven Angas for 220 years, and Subhadra, Yasobhadra, Yasobahu and Loha were knowers of Acaranga for 118 years. Thus within the period of 683 years after the death of Mahavira all these Acaryas are said to have been perfect in the respective Canon.112

Afterwards, according to the Dhavala and Jayadhavala, Dharasenacharya was knower of partly the Angas and Purvas. But the Nandisangha Prakrta Pattavali does not lend support to this view. According to this, the Acharya-parampara (from Gautama to Lohacarya) is enumerated within 565 years. Then Arbadvali, Maghanandi, Dharasena, Bhutavali and Puspadanta are said to have known one Anga, and their period was for 28, 21, 19, 30 and 20 years. On the basis of this calculation Bhutavali and Puspadanta come under the period of 683 years. This view is supported by Brhattippanika113 which mentioned Jonipahuda written by Dharasenacarya 600 hundred years after the death of Mahavira.

(ii) Anekanta School

Fortunately, Puspadanta and Bhutavali wrote a joint work named Satkhandagama of which Puspadanta wrote the earlier portion and Bhutavali the latter and Gunadharacarya wrote Kasayapahuda on the basis of the third Pejadosaprabhrta (Vastu-adhikara) of Jnanapravadapurva in the first century B. C. The rudiments of Jaina philosophy are found in these works which form the basis of all later works on Digambara Jainism by such Acaryas as Kundakunda, Umasvati, Smantabhadra. The Canon considered as lost by Digambaras is preserved by Svetambara tradition, as has already been stated, However in the absence of the original Canon, the Digambaras recognize the works of Puspadanta, Bhutavli, Gunadharacarya, Kundakunda, Svami Kartikeya, Umasvati, Vattakera and Sivarya as Canonical works.

Acarya Sumati is mentioned in the Buddhist philosophical literature. Santaraksita refers to him in the course of Pratyaksa and Paroksa Pariksa in the Tattvasangraha.114 We do not know about his definite literary contribution115 but the above references are a testimony to his recognition as a Jaina logician. As regards his date, he is mentioned in the copper-plate inscription of Karkasuvarnavarsa116 as the pupil of Mallavadi, an Acarya of the Mulasamgha-sena-amnaya. The same inscription refers to Aparajita as a pupil of Sumati. This inscription belongs to Saka samvat 743. Mallavadi referred to Dinnaga (5th century A. D.) without mentioning Dharmakirti's name in his Nayacakra. He, therefore, flourished after Dinnaga and before Dharmakirti (7th century A. D.). Bhattacarya concludes his date as being near about 720 A. D.117

Patrakesari also is mentioned in the Tattvasangraka. Santaraksita quotes the famous Karika118 composed by Partrasvamin, who was also called Patrakesari119. He is also referred to by several other writers120 as the author of the Trilaksanakadarthanam which was written in order to refute Dinnaga's theory or Trilaksanahetu. It may be noted here that Patrasvamin is not the name of Vidyananda as Pathak121 and Vidyabhusana122 suggest, but he is undoubtedly a separate person.123 Sramnavelagola Prasasti124 mentions his name and some other inscriptions125 refer to him after Sumati. Patrasvamin must have, therefore, lived after Dinnaga and before Santaraksita. He, therefore appears to have belonged to the last part of the 6th century A.D. and earlier part of the 7th century A.D.126 Sridatta127 (prior to Pujypada) also established the Anyathanu-papatti as one of the forms of Hetu in the Jalpanirnaya.

The period of Anekanta is marked by the establishment of the Syadvada conception with greater emphasis. The Saptabhangi of Acarya Kundakunda is developed by Samantabhadra, Siddhasena, Sumati, Patrekesari and Sridatta. A complete discussion of all the doctrines of Jainism is the characteristic of this age. This was a prolific age in other religious traditions too. For instance, the Vedic philosophers produced the Nyayabhasya, Yogabhasya, Sararabhasya etc. while Buddhist logicians such as Nagarjuna and Dinnaga were already advancing their theories in refutation of Vedic and other contemporary philosophical system.

(iii)Pramana School

One of the most revolutionary theories of this period was the concept of pratyksa as indicated knowledge. While the older Agamic tradition accepted Pratyaksa to be direct cognition, these new theoreticians rejected this view on the ground that there would be no direct cognition when the sense organs were relied upon for empirical experience. The cognition through sense organs was therefore held to be Indriya Pratyaksa while only realization through mental perception could be considered iindriya Pratyaksa. Other Pramanas were included in the category of Paroksa Pramana (indirect knowledge). Jinabhadra Ksamasramana (6th century A.D.) divided first the Pramanas systematically into two types, Samvyavaharika Pratyksa (Empirical Perception), and paramarthika Pratyaksa (Transcendental Perception).128 It may be noted here that the word Samvyavahara originally belongs to the Vijnanavadi Buddhists.

Conducting logical discussion to establish one's own views is another main feature of this period. The Nalanda Buddhist university had attained fame in this direction in the time of Dhammapala. His pupil Dharmakirti and others were engaged in philosophical debates with parties that were opposed to them. The Jaina philosophy, which is much closer then other religions to the Buddhist philosophy, also came in for a certain amount of criticism. Their main objections were raised against the dual characteristic of reality according to the Anekantavada conception, which was the result of endeavours to unite all the one sided views. The Pramanavartika of Dharmakirti and its Commentaries Pramanavartikatika of Devendramati, Pramanavartikalankara of Prajnakaragupta Pramanavartika svavrttitika of Karnakagomin, Tattvasangraha of Santaraksita, Hetubindutika of Arcata and other works of Buddhist philosophers had been already written to refute the Vedic views of Kumarila, isvarasena and Mandanamisra, and the Jaina views of Umasvami, Samantabhadra and Siddhasena. At this critical moment Acarya Akalanka and Haribhadra entered the field of controversy against the opponents of Jainism.

Mahendra Kumara established the view that the age of Haribhadra lies from 720 A.D. to 810 A.D. and that Akalanka flourished in 720-780 A. D. Both these great philosophers defended Jainism and in due course formulated a Jaina philosophical ideology on the bosis of Syadvada and Non-vilence129.

Here the persanality of Akalanka, who is mentioned only once in Buddhist literature, (DHP. p. 246) is very significant. His literary contribution is profound and extensive. All his works Tattvarthavartika, Astasati, Laghiyastrayasvavrtti, Nyayaviniscaya Savivrtti Siddhiviniscaya, Pramanasangraha, etc. "Stand as eloquent testimony to his penetrating mind and show a remarkable advancement in Jaina logic. He had a chivalrous disposition to help the people misled by the Buddhists. In his writings he was very satrical and caustic about Buddhists, particularly about Dharmakirti, in retorting the euphemistic criticism of Syadvada by Dharmakirit."130 Haribhadra and his works such as Sastravartasamuccaya, Anekantajayapataka and Anekantavadapravesa, also bear the same characteristics. The later Jaina philosophers developed the Jain philosophy of both these Acaryas, Akalanka and Haribhadra on their own ways.

Thus the pramana school saw the establishment of several new philosophical theories and doctrines. The theory of Syadvada and Pramanas was further developed by Akalanka and his followers, and they defended Syadvada which was bitterly criticised by rival philosophers, using the principales of Syadvada itself for the purpose.

The foregoing is a brief outline of Jaina philosophical literature. It is to be remembered here that Jaina literature was of later origin than Vedic and Buddhist literature. Jain literature came to be written while the Vedic and Buddhist philosophers were engaged in debates. Therefore it was naturally influenced by them. The Jain philosophers came into contact with many Buddhist philosophers. That is the reason why the major part of Jaina literature is devoted to the refutation of Buddhist doctrines.

Spread of Jainism

Pali literature refers generally to northern provinces of India where Buddhism originated and developed. Some facts relating to Jainism, which are found scattered in Buddhist literature, throw light on the expansion of Jainism during the time of the Buddha. It may be noted here that Jainism had already been established as a religion in various provinces of India before the Buddha began his mission. But Pali literature records only the discussions the Buddha had with certain Jaina followers he met, and not the Jaina doctrines in toto

Magadha was a center of missionary activities of all heretical teachers.131 The Buddha also selected this province for the propagation of his teachings. Rajagaha and Nalanda were the main places where the Buddha had to face the Niganthas as strong rivals. Bimbisara was supposed to have been in favour of both the religions. The Buddha came across the Jain ascetics at Kalasila on the side of Isigili mountain in Rajagaha. They were practising severe act of self-mortification with the idea of eradicating the past Kammas and attaining salvation. The Buddha could not convince them against their views.132 But he was able to convert Upali Gahapati,133 Abhayarajakumara,134 and Asibandhakaputta Gamini135, the lay devotees of the Nigantha Nataputta. Dighatapassi, a Jain monk, is reported not to have changed his religion, though he was convinced by Buddha. (M. i, 371), Nigrodha is said to be a follower of Ajivikism who practised asceticism including Catuyamasamvara of Jainism. He appears to have been a follower of Jainism and a supporter of Ajivikism. Whatever that be, he also could not be converted to Buddhism.136 The above incidents happened in Rajagaha and Nalanda. Most of the discourses given here by the Buddha were mainly to refute the teachings. This shows that Jainism in Magadha was on a firm footing, since the Buddha could not win over a number of followers of the Nigantha Nataputta.

Kosala was ruled over by Pasenadi during the Buddha's time. He respected all the six Tithiyas.137 Buddha spent twenty-one Vassas in Kosala. In addition, he visited this place several times. Nigantha Nataputta also had a good number of followers here. Savatthi and Saketa were the main places where the Buddha came into contact with the Jainas.

In Savatthi there was a very rich Setthi named Migara who was a staunch follower of Jainism. His son's wife Visakha was perhaps a follower of Buddhism. She is said to have persuaded her father-in-law, Migara, and other members of the family to be converted to buddhism.138 Another Setthi named Kalaka, he son-in-law, of Anathapindaka, living in Saketa is also described as having given up the faith of Nigantha Nataputta and embracing the religion of the Buddha.139

The Sakyas were politically an independent entity. Kapilavatthu was the birth place of the Buddha, but the Sakyas, were not strongly in favour of his doctrines. On the other hand, Jainism was very popular here since the Buddha's parents and their people were followers of Parsvanatha tradition, But the Buddha and his followers tried to convert the people from their faith. Mahanama, perhaps a relative of the Buddha, was an adherent of Nigantha Nataputta's religion. The Buddha pointing out the uselessness of severe mortification attempt to convert him140 and ultimately he succeeded in doing so. Hence both the Cula Dukkhandha Sutta and Sekha Sutta were preached to Mahanama.

Devadaha was an important town in the eyes of the Jain mission. Here also the Nigantha Nataputta's view, the theory of Kamma, is reported to have been refuted by the Buddha141 But no follower of Jainism, except Vappa Sakya142, the Buddha's uncle who was converted by Moggalana, is mentioned in the Nikayas as having given up Jainism. The fact that the Buddha laid down special rules for the entry of Nigantha Nataputta's followers to the Sangha, however, seems to indicate that a number of Nirgranthas were converted to Buddhism.

The Liccahavis had a republican form of government, and Vaisali was their capital. Since Parsvanatha's time it had been a centre of Jainism.143 Nigantha Nataputta and his Nata clan were very closely related to the Licchavis. He was very much influential in his home town, Vesali. In the course of missionary activities Jainism came into contact with Buddhists of Vesali. Saccaka144, a highly respected follower of Jainism was defeated by the Buddha in a religious disputation, Sallaka's parents also were followers of Jainism.145 On the other hand. Abhaya and Panditakumara146 were not satisfied with the answers given by their opponents.147 Siha, a general of the Licchavis, was of course, impressed by the Buddha's discourse and he became his follower. Inspite of active opposition of the Niganthas, the Buddha continued his work of conversion of the Licchavis to the newly established religion.

The Mallas, like Licchavis, were republican tribe. They were divided into two groups, the Mallas of Pava, and the Mallas of Kusinara, They were followers of both Jainism and Buddhism. The nigantha Nataputta's nirvana took place in Pava148 and the Mallas and Licchavis as a mark of honour, illuminated the place with earthern pots. This indicates that the Mallas were well disposed towards the Jainas.

The Jainas carried on their missionary work in Varanasi Mithila, Simhabhumi, Kausambi, Avanti etc. but Pali literature makes no refernce to Jaina activities in these centres. Nigantha Nataputta wandered about in Bihar and some part of Bengal and Uttar Pradesa in the course of his missionary activities which commenced immediately after the attainment of Kevaljnana. He got much help from his maternal uncle Cetaka, king of Vesali and his son-in-laws Udayana, Dadhivahana Satanika, Canda Pradyota, Nandivardhana and Bimbisara.

After Mahavira

After Mahavira's parinirbana, Jainism was patronized by Saisunages, Nandas, Kharvela, Mauryas, Satavahanas, Guptas, Paramaras, Chandelas and others. Some of them were followers of Jainism while others provided all possible facilities to develop its literary and cultural activities. The Southern part of India was also a great centre of Jainism. Bhadrabahu and Visakhacarya with their disciples migrated to the South and propagated Jainism a lot. Andhra Satavahanas, Pallavas Pandyas, Colas, Calukyas, Rastrakutas, etc. were main dynasties which rendered sufficient royal patronage and benefits to Jainism and its followers through the spirit of religious toleration existed in this region. The Jainas were given magnificent grants for their spiritual purpose. Numerous Jaina temples and sculptures were eracted by kings and many facilities were provided for literary services through out India. As a result the Jaina Acaryas wrote their ample works in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Tamil, Telagu, Kannada, Apabhramsa and modern Indian languages.

Jainism in Ceylon

Jainism crossed India from south in about the eighth century B.C. if not earlier, and became one of the important religions of Ceylon, which was known in those day by the name of Lanka Ratnadvipa or Simhala.149

The Mahavamsa, the best-known and most authoritative Ceylonese Chronicle in Pali verse, refers to the existence of Jainism in Ceylon even before the arrival of Buddhism. It is said there that Vijaya and his followers had to face the opposition of Yakkhinis in their attempt to establish their kingdom in Lanka. After the passing away of Vijaya, Panduvasudeva, and Abhaya Pandukabhaya captured the whole Island with the help of a Yakkhani named Cetiya who lived in the Dhumarakkha mountain near Tumbaramyana. Pandukabhaya then settled his helpers, Yakkhas and Yakhinis in various sides of the city of Anuradhapura, a capital of Lanka. He is also said to have handed over some cities to his relatives. He then made the appointment of hunderds of Candalas to work in the city and erected a cemetery for them. Estward of that cemetery Pandukabhaya built a house for the Nigantha Jotiya. In the same reign there dwelt another Niganth named Giri and many other ascetics of various heretical sects. At the same place there was also built a chapel for the Nigantha Kumbhandaha. Towards the west from thence and eastward of the street of the huntsmen there lived about five families of hertical beliefs (nanapasandika150).

The five hundred families of heretical beliefs and the construction of Viharas to the NIganthas on behalf of the king of lanka, Pandukabhaya, indicate clearly that Jainism was a living religion in Ceylon during his reign. Pandukabhaya's period, deduced on the basis of the date of Buddha's death as 544 B.C., is supposed to be 438-368 B. C. Jainism had apparently been introduced to Ceylon before Pandukabhaya. It could have been even before the arrival of Vijaya. One may wonder whether a name like Arittha (i, e. that of Devanampiya Tissa's minister) had any connection with the Jaina Tirthankara of that name.151

Jainism continued to exist even after the establishment of Buddhism in the Island. Its existence during the first century B. C. is recorded in the Mahavamsa. It is said that after a battle with the Tamila, king Vatthagamini Abhaya who was defeated fled out of the city. A Nigantha named Giri saw him and cried out loudly. "The great black Simhal is running away" (palayati mahakala Simhalo ti bhusam ravi). When the great king heard this he thought "If my wish be fulfiled I will build a Vihara here" (sidhe mama manorathe viharam karessam)152 Hence, after a few years when he drove away the Damila Dathika from Anuradhapura and regained his throne, he destroyed the Jaina monastery and built Abhayagiri Vihara in that place.153

According to the Mahavams Tika, this monastery was the scene of a tragedy in the time of Khallatanaga, predecessor of Vattagamini. This king, when he discovered a plot against his life by his nephew, went to Giri's monastery and ended his life by burning himself. At the spot, where this event occured, Khallatanaga's kinsman built a Cetiya called the Kurundavasoka Vihara,154

Jaina tradition takes the history of Jainism in Ceylon to Anera anterior to that reflected by the Ceylon Chronicles. According to Jaina records, the Yaksas and Raksasas who inhabited Ceylon prior to its Aryanization by Vijaya were not only human beings with a well developed civilization but also Jainas by faith155. The Vividhatirthakalpa mentions that at Trikutagiri in Kiskindha of Lanka there was magniflcient jain temple which was decdicated by Ravana, for the attainment of supernatural powers (Kiskindhayam Lankayah patalankayam Trikutagrirau Srisantinathah). To fulfil a desire of Mandodari, the principal queen, Ravana is said to have erected a Jaina statue out of jewels and this, it is said, was thrown into the sea when he was defeated by Ramachandra. Sankara, a king of Kalyananagara of Kannada, came to know about this statue and he recovered it from the bottom of sea with the help of Padmavatidevi, prominent Goddess of Jainas156.

It is said that the statue of Parsvanatha which is worshipped even now at Sripura Antariksa (India) was brought by Mali and Sumali Vidyadhara from Lanka.157 Another statue of Parsvanatha found in the caves of Terapura is also said to be from Lanka.158 The Karakanducariu describes how Amitavega, a Jaina king of Malaya, used to visit Lankadvipa as an intimate friend of ravana who built a Jaina temple in malaya.159 This Malaya can be identified with Malaya, the name of tho central hill country of Ceylon.

These references seem to point out that Jainism existed in-Ceylon even before the birth of the Nigantha nataputta. Vibhisana, the younger brother of Ravana, who was a follower of Jainism according to Jain tradition and literature, is referred to as the tutelary Yaksa of Ceylon (Vibhisanastamraparaniyam) in the Mahamayuri, a magical text of Northern Buddhists, which was translated into Chinese in the fourth century A. D. Vibhisana is still worshipped at Kelaniya and is supposed to be one of the four guardian deities of the Island.