Book Jainism in Buddhist Literature Author Dr. Hiralal Jain

The Dipavamsa presents a more probable account : "The Bhikkhus composed the collection of Dhamma and Vinaya, by asking the Thera called Ananda regarding the Dhamma. There Mahakassapa and the great teacher Anurudha, Thera Upali of powerful memory, and learned Anauda, as well as many other distinguished disciples who had been praised by the Buddha....made this council." Here the Dhamma and Vinaya mean selected groups of the original Suttas and doctrines, not the whole present Pali Tipitaka.

Hundred years after the death of the Buddha (vassasata-parinibbute Bhagavati), the Second Council was held in Vesali to recite again the Dhama and the Vinaya. Seven hundred monks participated in this council. It is also therefore called Saptasatika.

The accounts of this council state that Yasa Thera was shocked when he came to know about the relaxing of monastic rules and the acceptance by some monks of the ten heretical practices (dasa vatthuni)23. But as Yasa Therea opposed them, he was excommunicated (patisaraniyakamma). Yasa then went in search of monks who would agree with his views. He further tried to bring the dispute to a peaceful end. For this purpose a Council was summoned at Vesali in Valikarama under the presidency of Thera Revata. All these ten points were considered unlawful according to tradition. This council lasted eight months during which the Dhamma and Vinaya were discussed. The heretical monks then arranged a separate council called Mahasamgiti making a different redaction of the Canonical literature.24

The main sources of the seconf council are : (1) the cullavagga of the Vinayapitaka, (ii) Dipavamsa, (iii) Mahavamsa, (iv) Samantapasadika, (v) Hiuen Tsang's Record of Western countries (vi) Tibetan Dulva, Taranatha's Geschichted's Buddhismus in Indien, ubersetz von Schifener, and other Chinese sources differ in some respects, but the Cullavagga's record is the oldest one and the others appear to be based on it.

The historicity of this council is now accepted unanimously by the scholars. Kern raised an objection saying "We could not discover in these accounts anything but dogmatic fictions for which didactic mythical stories of older times have furnisbed the materials25. But in another work he altered his conception stating "The council on Vinaya in Vaisali has historical base."26 Oldenberg, who denied the First Council, accepted the Second Council. He says : "It is an account, which with all its pedantic snatching after trifles, bears the stamp of being in the highest degree trustworthy.27

It should be noted here that the debatable points were settled after discussions, most probably on the basis of some authoritative works. But Majumdar is of the view that the present Vinaya could not have been compiled before the Second Council was held, or otherwise the dispute over the monastic rules could not have arisen among the monks at that stage.

We are inclined to accept the traditional view that both the Dhamma and the Vinaya were recited at the Vesali Council. The Dhamma comprises the Nikayas which are the earliest and most reliable sources of the Buddhist doctrines. Whether any finality was reached regarding the structure and contents of the Pitakas ar not, we may not be able to decide due to the lack of necessary evidence available to us. But it is most unlikely that a Council summoned to settle a dispute in monastic Order, which was threatening the unity of the Buddhist Order, was concluded without a review of the body of doctrines preserved by the monks.

Up to the time of Asoka Buddhism became very popular and easier to follow than the original teachings of Buddha. It is said that the heretics in monk's robes used to live in Buddhist monasteries and preach their own dhamma in the name of Buddhism. Under such circumstances the monastic rules were slackened and the Uposatha and the Pavarana could not be held for about seven years. The Great king Asoka somehow came to know of this corruption among the Buddhist monks and then sent a religious officer to conduct Uposatha and Pavarana ceremony. He then out throats of several monks. Asoka was much disturbed by this Moggali-putta, Tissa, however, came into contact with Asoka and a solution was found.

This was the background for the third council held in Pataliputra under the presidency of Moggaliputta Tissa. It is referred to in the Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa and Samantapasadika. It is recorded in the Tibetan Dulva and some Chinese sources too. But the Cullavagga does not give an account of the third Council. Asoka's inscriptions also make no reference to it.
Historicity of the Council

Some scholars like Minayeff, Keith, Franke, etc. deny it historicity. Their main argument is that it is not mentioned in the Cullavagga, one of the earliest scriputures and in the Asoka's inscriptions. Keith, for example, says : "It is incredible that it ever took place without receiving some mention in the numerous records of Asoka."28 In the buddhist Philosophy he says : "the only verdict of scientific history must be that the council was a figment of the pious or fraudulent imaginings of a sect, which desired to secure for its texts, and espcially for the new Abhidhamma, a connection with the greatest Buddhist sovereigns, and that the northern tradition does well to ignore the Council entirely."29 He even thinks of Tissa in a "Suspicious aspect."30

As regards the absence of any record in Asoka's inscriptions, it can be said that Asoka would have preferred to attach the name of Moggaliputta Tissa to this council since it was the result of his invaluable efforts. Asoka was only the supporter and provider of the purpose.

Actually some of his edicts indicate that this Council did take place. In one of his edicts, for example, King Asoka decrees that heretical monks and nuns shall be excommunicated.31 G. C. Pande rightly suggests that Asoka might not have been "as intimately connected with the Council as the Pali tradition would have us believe."32

It was only the Vibhajjavadins or the Theravadins who attended this Council. A rift in the Buddhist order took place after the Second Council and by the time of Asoka it was divided into eighteen sects33, which were refuted by Vibhajjavadins in this great Council.

Thus on the basis of above literary as well as inscriptional evidences, we cannot deny the historicity of the Third Council held in Pataliputra under the presidency of Moggaliputta Tiss.

Other Councils also were summoned for various purposes at different times. The Fourth Council was held under the auspices of Kaniska in about 100 A. D. According to the Mahavamsa and Other Ceylones traditions, three Councils were held in Ceylon. The First was held during the reign of kind Devanampiya Tissa (247 - 207 B. C.) under the presidency of the Venerable Arittha Thera. The Second Council was held during the time of King Vattagamini Abhaya (about 101-77 B. C.) under the presidency of Mahathera Rakkhita and the Canon was reduced to writing. It was held at the Alu-Vihara in the village of Matale in Ceylon. The Third Council was conducted in 1865 at Ratnapura in Ceylon under the presidency of the Venerable Hikkaduve siri Sumangala. Two Councils have been held in Thailand (Siam). Some Councils were summoned in Burma too. The so-called Fifth Council held in Mandelay is very important, as the text of the Canon fixed at this Council was engraved on marble slabs which for the last so many years had proved to be the most reliable record of the buddhist Canon. The Sixth Buddhist Council was inaugurated in May 1954 in Rangoon with the collaboration of the various countries of the Buddhist world.

APPENDIX III
The Concept of Omniscience In Buddhism
The Buddha is said to have declaimed omniscience in the sense of knowing everything at once and all the time as claimed by Nataputta1, though he never denied the possessing of supernatural power. The Buddha himself said that he had a three-fold knowledge (tisso vijja). He has remarked that "those who say that the Recluse Gotama is omniscient and all-seeing and professes to have an infinite knowledge and insight, which is constantly and at all times present to him, when he walks or stands, sleeps or keeps away--are not reporting him properly and misrepresent him as claiming what is false and untrue." On being asked how he could be reported correctly in this matter, he replied "in proclaiming that the Recluse Gotama has a three-fold knowledge" (tisso vijja)2. It is said therefore that whatever is well-spoken is the word of the Buddha (yam kinci subhasitam, tam tassa bhagawato vacanam).3

The very familiar Abhinna in Buddhist literature has an "older and wider meaning of special supernatureal power of a perception and knowledge to be acquired by training in life and thought.4 "It has been interpreted as the following six powers called Chalabhinna attained by the Buddha5 "

(i) Iddhividha (psychokinesis).

(ii) Dibbasotadhatu (clairaudience).

(iii) Cetopariyanna (telepathic knowledge).

(iv) Pubbenivasannussatinana (retrocognitive knowledge).

(v) Dibbackkhu (clairvoyance) also known as cutupa-patanana (D. i, 82) or knowledge of decease and survival of beings and

(vi) Asavakkhayanana (knowledge of the destruction of defiling impulses).

All these six powers have a close relation with the five knowledge of Jainism. The first two are similar to Matijnana and Srutajnana. The fourth and the fifth correspond to Avadhijnana, the third to Manahparyaya jnana, and the last to Kevalajnana of the Jainas.

On the basis of possessing the Pubbenivasanussatinana and Dibbacakkhu, the Buddha claimed to see and know the decease and survival of beings and their karmas.6 Anuruddha, who is said to have attained the dibbasotadhatu, is believed to have to power of "seeing a thousand worlds."7 All the characters of these two abhinnas resemble the avadhijnana of Jainism.

The sixth abhinna Asavakkhayanana is a knowledge acquired for the destruction of defiling impulses. Atmajnana9 (attanava janeyyatha) is essential for destroying the impulses and then for the attainment of salvation10. The Buddha is also called the nanavadin in the Nikayas11. The power of knowing and Perceiving everything (janati passata) is a distinguishing characteristic of the Buddha12. This knowing and perceiving is connected with the Four Noble Truths (ariyasaccani avecca passati13). After being eliminated the five impediments (pancanivaranepahaya14) the Buddha is said to have known and perceived the Four Noble Truths with the last three abhinnas. He knows "this is the truth of suffering, this is the cause of suffering, this is the cessation of suffering, and this is the path leading to the cessation of defiling of impulses.15

The Buddha is one who has knowledge and insight into all realities (sabbesu dhammesu ca nanadassi),16 which can be comprehended by mental concentration (samadhi). Through this insight the Buddha could know that Sunakhatta would die after seven days, and that of epilepsy and on dying he would be reborn as one of the Kalakanjas, the very lowest of the Asura groups17. Once when the bhikkhus were conversing in his absence, he was able to say that they hed been discussing18. In the Kevaddha Sutta he is said to have claimed to answer a quesion which even Brahma was ignorant of19.

All these references indicate that because of some short of insight the Buddha could know and perceive things. He is said to have a three-fold knowledge (tisso-vijja),20 six intellectual powers (cha imani.........Tathagatabalani),21 ten intellectual powers (dasa balani)22 and so forth. He is therefore considered sometimes an omniscient. Keith refers to a passage from the Anguttaranikaya23 where the Buddha is compared to a granary, whence men every good word, and points out the same view.24

These are the negative references to the Buddha's omniscience. They have been the stepping stones to establish omnisceince positively in the Buddha in later Pali as well as Buddhist philosophical literature. The Patisambhidamagga says in this respect that the Tathagata's omniscience consists in knowing everything conditioned and unconditioned, and also knowing everything in the past, present and future. Further it tries to prove omniscience in the Buddha, and says that he knows everything that has seen heard, sensed, thought, attained, sought and searched by the minds of those who inhabit the entire world of gods and men.25 "Likewise, the Kathavatthu describes the two epithets "sabbannu" (omniscient) and "sabbadassavi" (all-seeing) as occurring in a list of eight epithets of the Buddha.26" As a matter of fact, the Buddha never claimed himself to be omniscient. His discipline explained his supernatural power or threefold knowledge as omniscience and supplemented some references to establish it in the Buddha at the compilation of the Tripitaku, especially the Abhidhamma. This happened so because of saddha or faith and bhatti or devotion in the Buddha.

The Pali Canon refers to saddha as synonymous with bhatti (devotion), pema (affection) and pasada (propitiousness) or appreciation27. The Milindapanha28 and the Atthasalim29 show that the saddha has two characters, appreciation (samupasadanalakkhana) and endeavour (samupakkhan-danalakkhana). Datta observes that "saddha carries two distinct meanings (1) one is faith (pasada) producing piti (pleasure), and (2) the other is self confidence proving virya (energy)30. Likewise, Jainism sradda31, bhakti32, anuraga6,33 seva34, and vinaya35 are said to be indentical words.

The conception of Dammanana (knowledge of ariyasaccani) in the Buddha was gradually developed in Buddhist philosophical literature. Dharmakrirti supports this view that the Buddha was a Dharmajna as well as Margajna in the sense that he knower of Caturaryasatya, but he did not deny the omniscience of the Buddha. He said that spiritual knowledge should be recognised as an essential element of a Teacher.36

Prajnakaragupta, a disciple of Dharmakirti further observes that omniscience is possible, if one has destroyed all worldly attachments. This requires great effort.37

Santaraksita emphasises sarvajnatva more than Dharma-jnatva. He says that an omniscient being can know everything that he intends to know, since he has already destroyed all the obstructions of knowledge38. He then refutesthe view of Kumarila, and establishes complete omniscience in the Buddha. The later Buddhist Philosophers followed Santaraksita's view.

In the sixth century B. C. omniscience was considered one of the essential characteristics of a Teacher or Prophets. The Buddha criticised this view and said that no one can know an perceive everything at once. But his disciples were anxious to give their teacher a position of greater recognition, and gradually went onto establish the theory of the perfect omniscience of the Buddha on the basis of the superhuman powers. There is no doubt that this was done with a view to stand the Buddha in the linw of the other Prophets,

NOTES

APPENDIX I

2. Introduction to the Dhammapada, SBE., pp. xliii-xlvii.

3. Book of Indian Eras, p. 34.

4. Vinaya Pitaka, SBE., Vol. xlll. p. 28.

5. Political History of India, p. 227.

6. Kern, Buddhism, 11. p. 63.

7. Agama aura Tripitake : EKa Anusilana, P. 114.

8. Journal Asialique, 1900, pp. 316; Eng. trans. by J. M. Seneviratne, JRAS (Ceylon Branch), Vol. xxiv., No. 68, pp. 82-102.

9. "Date of the Buddha's of Ceylon from a Chinese Source", JRAS, 1911, pp, 1142-1144.

10. Epigraphia Zeylanica, Vol. 1. pp. 79-80, 122-124, 155-157.

11. Mahavamsa, intro. pp. xxii.

12. JRAS. (Ceylon Branch), 1914, Vol. xxxiii, No. 67, p. 143.

13. Dve satani ca vassani attharasa vassani ca. Samubuddhe parinibhute abhisitto piyadassano. Dip., vi. 1.

14. Jinanibbanato pacca pura tassabhisekato. Sattharasam vassasatadvayam evem vijaniyam. Maha Vamsa. v. 21.

15. Dip., v. 100; Maha., v. 16-18.

16. Dip., vi. 21-22; Maha., v. 22.

17. Smith, V. A; The Early History of India, pp. 38-9, Roychaudhuri accepts 323 B. C.

18. ERE., 1. pp. 260-261.

19. Book of Indian Eras, pp. 34-5.

20. Ulien's Hwen Thsang, 11.335.

21. Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, translated by Giles C. vii.

22. Epigraphia Zeylanica, Vol. 1. p. 155 & p. 123; See also Galvihara Inscription of Polonnaruwa, 11. 1-4 (Ed. Muller, Ancient Inscription of Ceylon, pp. 87. 120).

23. Hultzsch, South Indian Inscription iii. no. 27, p. 53; Epigr. Zeyl. pp. 80, 155.

24. Geiger, Mahavamsa, intro. p. xxix.

25. University of Ceylon Review, Vol. xviii. Nos. 3 & 4, pp. 131.

26. Epigraphia Zelanica. Vol. 1. pp. 79-80, 122-124, 155-57.

27. The date of Buddha's death and Ceylon chronology, JRAS. Vol. xxiii. No. 67, 1914, pp. 143.

28. Ibid., P. 253.

29. Contribution to Sinhalese chronology, JRAS. 1913, p, 517-531.

30. JRAS., (Ceylon Branch), Val. xxiii. No. 67, 1914.

31. IA., Vol. xi. 1882, p. 246 (for the particulars about Indrabhuti Ganadhara).

APPENDIX II

2. Pure adhamo dippati, dhammo patibahiyati. avinayo dippati. 3. Mahavamsa., ii. 2.2

4. There is no unanimity regarding to inclusion of Ananda in the First Council. See, Le Councile de Ragaha, p. 225.

5. Prof. La Valiee Pousin has traced some of these rules in the Mahavagga (vl. 17-19-20). Purana says "The dhamma and the Vinaya have been well sung by the Theras. Nevertheless, even in such manner as it has been heard by me from the mouth of the Blessed One, in that manner will I bear it in memory." Vinaya Pitaka, iii.34l-Culla, XL. i. i., quoted by S. Dutta in The Buddha and Five After Centuries, p. 103.

6. Buddhistic Studies, p. 44.

7. Recherches sur le Bouddhisme, 1887, translated from Russian into French by R. H. Assier de Pompognan, 1824.

8. Buddhistische Stuaien, ZDMG, 1898, pp. 613; Introduction to the Vinayapitaka, Vol. 1.xxv-xxix.

9. The life of the Buddha, p. vii.

10. General introduction to the Buddhist Suttas, SBE. Vol. XL. p. xiii.

11. J. P. T. S., 1908, pp. 1-80.

12. The Buddha and Five After Centuries, p. 102,

13. IHQ., Viii. pp. 241-6.

14. Early Monastic Buddhism. N. Dutta, Vol. 1. p. 337.

15. IHQ., VIII. pp. 781-4.

16. Le Mouseon, VI. pp. 213-323, tr. into English in the Indian Antiquary, 1908; See also ERE., sv. Councils.

17. Le council de Rajagrha, by Jean Przyluski.

18. ZDMG., Vol. xxxiv; 1880, pp. 184 ff.

19. Tata anantaram-dhammasangani-vibhangance, kathavatthunca Puggalam, Dhatu-yamaka-patthanam, abhidhammati vaccati. Evam samvannitam sukhama-yanagocaram, tam samgayitva idam abhidhammapi-takam namati vatva panca-arhantasatani sajjha-yamakansu. Sumangalavilasini, Nidanakatha.

20. 2 Cf. Early Monastic Buddhism, Vol. 1. p. 339.

21. Recherches Sur le Bouddhisme, pp. 35-36.

22. Early Monastic Buddhism, Vol. 1. p. 339.

23. Mahavamsa, 5.

The Tibbetan and Chinese accounts give a quite different reason. They relate this dissension with Mahadeva's dogmas, which are as follows :

(i) An Arhat may commit a sin by uncounscious temptation. (ii) One may be an Arhat and not know it. (iii) An Arhat may have doubts on matters of doctrine. (iv) One cannot attain Arhatship without a teacher., and (v) The noble ways may begin by a shout, that is one meditating seriously on religion may make such an exclamation as how sad ! How sad ! and by so doing attain progress towards perfection--the path is attained by an exclamation of astonishment.--2500 years of Buddhism, p. 98.

24. Dipavamsa, 5.30 foll. names it Mahasamgiti, while the Mahavamsa, 5. 3-4, calls it Mahasanghika.

25. Historic due Bouddhisme Dans, 1. Indc : Buddhistic Studies, p. 26.

26. Manual of Buddhism, p. 109.

27. Introduction to the Vinayapitaka, p. xxix.

28. Buddhist Philosophy in India and Ceylon, Vol. 11. pp. 265-6.

29. Buddhist Philosophy, p. 19. 30. Ibid.

31. Hultzsch, E., Inscriptions of Ashoka,; Corpus Inscription Indicarum, Vol. 1. Oxford, 1925, pp. xliii. ff; p. 160. No. 5.

32. Studies in the Origin of Buddhism, p. 8.

33. The Vajjiputtakas established the Maha-Sanghika sect in the Second council. It was divided later on into five sects and become six, Viz. Mahasanghika, Ekabboharika, Gokulaka, Pannattivadi, Bahulika, and Cetiyavadi.

APPENDIX III

In Buddhism

2. M. i 482. 3. A. iv. 164.

4. PTS. Dictionary. 5. D. i. 83.

6. So dibbene cakkhuna visuddhena atikkantamanusakena satte passati cavamane upapajjamane hine panite suvanne dubbanne sugate duggate yatha-kammupage. D. i 82. 7. M. i. 213.

8. A. i. 170-171; Early Buddhist theory of Knowledge p. 440.

9. A. ii. 191. 10. M. i. 167.

11. D. iii. 12; A. i. 340. 12. M. i. lll.

13. Sn. 229. 14. M. i. 347.

15. So imam dukkham dukkham ti yathabhutam pajanati, ayam dukkhasamudayo ti.....ayam asavanirodhagami-nipatipada ti, D. i. 84. 16. Sn. 478.

17. Dialogues of the Buddha, iii. p. 12.

18. ibid. ii. p. 4. 19. D. i. 223.