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6Speed management and enforcement

Speed and the management of speeding vehicles is a significant issue in the area of road safety. Excessive speed in terms of driving too fast for the conditions or driving over the posted speed limit is one of the major contributing factors to crashes as identified in Table 3 .5. The research presented here is concerned with issues relevant to a better understanding of HV speed issues.

Table 6 .15 provides an overview of research related to HV speed and speed management. Some of the key findings to come out of this research include:

Speeding above the posted speed limit is an issue for around 1/4 of heavy vehicle drivers with larger vehicles (e.g., B-doubles and road trains) more likely to exceed posted limits.
Low-level speeding (within 10km/h of the posted limit) is more common than extreme speeding and as such is of more concern for overall safety outcomes.
The speed of heavy vehicles may be influenced by other light vehicle traffic therefore, managing the speed of all vehicles has implications for heavy vehicle safety. This also has implications for the effectiveness of uniform or differential speed limits.
Technologies such as speed limiters and ISA have safety benefits with regard to managing the speed of heavy vehicles.

Key findings in relation to the enforcement of speed and other heavy vehicle related regulations (e.g., laws regarding the mechanical condition of vehicle components such as brakes) as outlined in Table 6 .16 include:

On-board, vehicle-to-vehicle, and vehicle-to-infrastructure technologies have the potential to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of enforcement. Technology will be increasingly required to manage compliance with the growing complexity of the freight task.
Intensive high-visibility police enforcement operations effectively reduce speeds on targeted and surrounding roads, however this effect is relatively short-lived following the cessation of police operations.
Speed cameras have proven effective for lowering average speeds and reducing crashes on roads where they are installed.

Table 6.15
Speed and Speed management

Authors	Type	Availability	Research	Findings
Bennett, Bueker, Blanksby, & Cairney (2006)	Conference paper	Public	Describes the development of a specification for a system designed to monitor the characteristics and operation of heavy vehicles approaching a curve and to provide a warning to vehicles identified at risk of rolling over.	System characteristics were specified in terms of the vehicle and operational characteristics that should be measured, where measurements should be taken, identify the parameters indicating when a warning should be provided, and how those warnings should be delivered.
de Pont, Charlton, Latto, & Baas (2004)	Conference paper	Public	Outlines the findings of three studies measuring vehicle speeds through curves.	In the first study using data obtained from an instrumented line haul vehicle, sites of repeated high lateral acceleration were identified. The second study monitored the speeds of heavy vehicles on a number of curves with posted advisory restrictions. This enabled examinations of changes in speed behaviour and differences between vehicle types and different advisory speed levels. The third study used a simulator to investigate how speed around curves could be managed through visual cues that influence driver behaviour.
George (2003)	Austroads report	Public	Outlines the prevalence of speeding and overloading amongst Austroads class 3 and class 9 vehicles using nationwide data from weigh-in-motion devices.	17% of class 3 and 26% of class 9 vehicles were detected speeding. 2% of class 3 and 13% of class 9 vehicles were overloaded. 0.6% of class 3 and 5% of class 9 vehicles were simultaneously speeding and overloaded. For both classes of vehicle the majority of speeding was within 10% of the speed limit.
Cai, Dang, Karl, & Koniditsiotis (2010)	Conference paper	Public	Presents the IAP as a broad function of applications that is used for a range of safety outcomes & monitoring compliance.	The visibility of IAP data has achieved road safety outcomes at all levels of the transport and logistics chain of responsibility. New safety applications based on the IAP platform and utilising IAP data in conjunction with data from other sources are being developed.
Brooks (2002)	Conference paper	Public	Reviews issues relating to speed and the safety of heavy vehicles.	Concern over heavy vehicle speeds has tended to focus on the small proportion of heavy vehicles that substantially exceed posted speed limits. “Low level” speeding is important for overall safety outcomes because it is more common than extreme speeding. Total elimination of heavy vehicle speeding may prevent an estimated 25% of serious casualties involving heavy trucks. Setting speed limits and managing light vehicle speeds are other important factors that have implications for serious heavy vehicle crashes.
VicRoads & Transport South Australia	Conference paper	Public	Illustrates the heavy vehicle speeding trends since 1995 using aggregate data for various classes of heavy vehicles obtained from WIM sites across rural and urban Australia.	The percentage of heavy vehicles detected speeding is trending upwards. Larger heavy vehicles (articulated vehicles, B-doubles, and road trains) were more likely to be detected speeding. The proportion of articulated vehicles speeding was constant throughout the day. Rigid vehicles were more likely to speed between 6am and 6pm. B-doubles were more likely to speed between 6pm and midnight.
AMR Interactive (2006)	NTC research paper	Public	An evaluation of 619 heavy vehicle drivers’ knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and reported behaviours with regard to speeding.	The most important factors associated with risk taking were attitudes about the acceptability of speeding. A number of issues regarding the development of strategies to address heavy vehicle speeding were also discussed. These include: general attitudes, situational triggers, promotion of enforcement, new technology, and penalties.
Truong, Fitzharris, Stephan, Healy, Rowe, & Collins (2010)	Conference paper	Public	Reports on the preliminary findings of a small-scale trial of ISA on heavy vehicles.	Discusses the merits of ISA in terms of speed choice, fuel consumption, and driver acceptability.
Saccomanno, Duong, Cunto, Hellinga, Philip, & Thiffault (2009)	Journal article	Public	An investigation of the safety implications of mandated truck speed limiters using a microscopic simulation approach.	Truck speed limiters produced positive safety gains for different assumed volumes and percentages of trucks and different compliance levels. Under some conditions, e.g., high volumes and high percentage of trucks, speed limiters produced a reduction in safety.
Garber, Miller, Sun, & Yuan (2006)	Journal article	Public	An examination of the safety benefits of differential speed limits for cars and trucks based on statistical comparisons of crashes between (US) states with uniform or differential speed limits.	Aggregate results showed no consistent safety effects of DSL as opposed to USL. This was due to an increased crash risk observed for each state over the period of data collection (1991-2000).
Friswell, Irvine, & Williamson (2003)	Journal article	Public	Examines the distribution and patterns of speeding of heavy vehicles using data collected from 20 fixed speed camera sites in rural and urban NSW.	HVs were less likely to be detected for speeding compared to LVs. In 110 km/h zones HVs tended to speed as much as LVs, which appeared to be in response to the upper speed limit for LVs rather than the lower speed limit for HVs. Speed-related crash rates were lower for HVs, particularly on country non-urban roads.

Table 6.16

Enforcement

Authors	Type	Availability	Research	Findings
Carden, Hughes, Deedy, Yeakel, & Keppler (2005)	Conference paper	Public	Describes the use of active and passive communications between commercial vehicles and infrastructure to assist with enforcement and improve security for commercial vehicles.	Vehicle to infrastructure communication is considered a basic component of North Carolina’s concept of enhanced commercial vehicle enforcement for both safety and security. Information that could be communicated to static and mobile infrastructure include vehicle diagnostic information, driver status (e.g., hours of service, fatigue, etc.), and other information critical to security, such as driver ID authentication and evidence of load tampering.
Urbanik (2005)	Conference paper	Public	Describes the initial phase of a concept, called Trusted Truck, for improving the safety, efficiency, and security of the truck inspection process.	Demonstrates the real-time capability to provide brake condition data to a roadside inspection station at highway speeds through the use of wireless communications.
Soole, Watson, & Lennon (2009)	Conference paper	Public	A quantitative survey investigating the impact of police speed enforcement methods on self-reported speeding behaviour of 852 Queensland drivers.	Visible enforcement was associated with greater self-reported compliance than were covert operations and the effects on behaviour were long-lasting. The mobility of police operations had differing effects for covert and overt operations. Covert: mobility associated with increased self-reported compliant behaviour. Overt: Increased longevity of reported compliant behaviour.
Walter, Broughton, & Knowles (2011)	Journal article	Public	An investigation of the effects of increasing police traffic enforcement in a busy urban area. Operation Radar ran for four weeks and increased police visibility in the area.	Roadside surveys revealed that speeds reduced systematically during the operation along the targeted route and in surrounding areas. Some effects were observed to last at least two weeks beyond the operational period. No positive effect of the operation on the use of seat belts or mobile phones were observed.
Vaa (1997)	Journal article	Public	Assesses the effectiveness of increased police enforcement on speed. Speeds were measured before, during, and after a six week period of increased police enforcement on a 35 km stretch of road with 60 and 80 km/h posted limits. Speeds were also compared to another stretch of road.	Average speeds were reduced by 1-5 km/h in both speed-limit zones and for all times of day. For some time periods the percentage of speeding drivers were reduced for up to eight weeks after the increased police presence was withdrawn. The percentage of speeding drivers was reduced for both speed-limits and for all hours of the day with the exception of the peak morning traffic (6-9am). Drivers in the morning rush hours appear most resistant to speed reduction.
Hakkert, Gitelman, Cohen, Doveh, & Umansky (2001)	Journal article	Public	Assesses the effectiveness of the deployment of Israel’s national traffic police in a general enforcement on 700km of interurban roads where 60% of all rural accidents and half of all severe accidents occurred. Involved observations of speed before and during the project (which ran for one year) and driver surveys of perceived police presence and enforcement effectiveness.	A general reduction in traffic violations was observed during the operation, with the exception of compliance with stop signs and turn signalling. Driver surveys revealed improvements in the perceived level of police activity, however drivers perceptions of risk of apprehension for violations remained unchanged. Statistically significant reduction in severe accidents and severe casualties were achieved on highly enforced roads in the centre of the country compared to other roads. Examination of project implementation revealed police required more flexibility in terms of deployment and enforcement tactics and procedures.
Newstead, Cameron, & Leggett (2001)	Journal article	Public	Reports on the effects of a resource management technique (Random Road Watch) that randomly schedules low levels of police enforcement in a manner designed to provide wide-spread and long-term coverage of a road network in Queensland.	Analysis of the effects of the Random Road Watch program demonstrated that the program effectively reduced crashes in the areas covered by the program. The largest effects were observed for fatal crashes with an observed reduction of 31%. Overall the program produced an 11% reduction in crash totals outside of metropolitan Brisbane.
Goldenbeld & van Schagen (2005)	Journal article	Public	An evaluation of a targeted speed enforcement program involving mobile radar on rural non-motorway roads in the Dutch province of Friesland. Speed data for the roads covered by the program were evaluated for each year of the program’s five year duration.	A significant decrease in the mean speed and the percentage of speeding violations was observed over the five year period. The largest decreases were observed in the 1st and 4th years of the project when enforcement was at its highest. Spill-over effects were observed in the reductions in speeding on nearby comparison roads that were not included in the enforcement project. It was estimated that the project reduced both the number of injury crashes and the number of serious casualties by 21%.
Shin, Washington, & van Schalwyk (2009)	Journal article	Public	An evaluation of the effectiveness of a fixed-camera speed enforcement program undertaken on a 6.5 mile urban freeway in Scottsdale, Arizona. The program had a duration of nine months.	Average speeds in the enforcement zone were reduced by 9mph during the program. All crash types, with the exception of rear-end crashes, were reduced. Speeding detection frequencies increased by a factor of 10.5 after the program was temporarily terminated. The annual safety benefits of the program were an estimated $17 million.
de Waard & Rooijer (1994)	Journal article	Public	Research undertaken to determine the most effective method of police enforcement to reduce driving speed and optimise the use of police personnel. Speed was measured before, during, and after the trial of two different approaches to enforcement. Surveys were used to obtain driver opinions about speeding and enforcement.	The highest intensity level of police enforcement yielded the largest and longest lasting reductions in driving speed. Stopping offenders was found to be a more effective means to reduce driving speed than mailing of fines. Driver surveys indicated that many drivers did not notice the recurrent enforcement due to infrequent use of the targeted roadways. The preventive effect of enforcement appeared to be more substantial than its repressive effect. Enforcement was found to primarily deter current non-offenders from speeding.
Bjornskau & Elvik (1992)	Journal article	Public	Adopts a game theory approach to understanding and explaining outcomes of police traffic enforcement practices.	The main implications derived from game theory are: 1. Most attempts at enforcement will not have a lasting effect on driver behaviour or crashes. 2. Imposing stricter penalties will not affect road user behaviour. 3. Imposing stricter penalties will reduce the level of enforcement 4. Implementing automatic surveillance techniques or the allocation of enforcement resources according to a chance mechanism (and not according to police estimates of violation probability) can make enforcement effects last.
Mountain, Hirst, & Maher (2005)	Journal article	Public	An evaluation of the impact of different speed management schemes on traffic speeds and crashes.	When judged in absolute terms all types of speed management schemes had similar effects on crashes. Engineering schemes utilising vertical deflection (e.g., speed humps and cushions) provided twice the safety benefits (in terms of crash reduction) of safety/speed cameras (44% v 22%).
Beenstock, Gafni, & Goldin (2001)	Journal article	Public	Panel data to investigate the effect of traffic policing on rural road accidents in Israel was used.	Only large scale enforcement was found to have any effect on crashes; small-scale enforcement was found to have no apparent effect. Enforcement effects were found to be larger in the long-run rather than short-term. Effects of enforcement were found to dissipate rapidly when the level of enforcement is reduced. Enforcement was found to have no effect on fatal crashes. Evidence of enforcement on one road spilling over to other roads was weak.
Loader (2006)	Austroads report	Public	Presents guidelines for a nationally consistent implementation of legislative provisions of the Road Transport Reform (Compliance and Enforcement) Bill relating to load restraint breaches.	Introduces risk-based categorisations of breaches based on load and restraint characteristics and the threat that breaches of accepted standards pose to immediate safety.
Keogh (2002)	Conference paper	Public	Outlines the role of enforcement in heavy vehicle compliance and safety and identifies future directions with regard to the role of enforcement agencies in improving heavy vehicle safety.	Enforcement resources are limited, thus it is important to maximise the effectiveness of these resources. Enforcement is only one component of compliance, however without enforcement it is unlikely that improvements in compliance and safety will be achieved. A cooperative approach by all participants in the heavy vehicle industry is required for the achievement of successful outcomes.
Honefanger, Strawhorn, Athey, Carson, Conner, Jones, et al. (2007)	Report	Public	A research scan of international technologies used in the enforcement of commercial motor vehicles weight and size.	European countries use a range of technologies to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of size and weight enforcement.
Taylor & Opiola (2003)	Conference paper	Public	Describes the elements and requirements necessary for a robust electronic compliance monitoring system for heavy vehicles.	Traditional methods of ensuring compliance will not keep pace with the increasingly complex road transport task. An electronic compliance monitoring system needs to ensure its own internal integrity and supply of irrefutable evidence of non-compliant behaviour.
Wilson, Willis, Hendrikz, Le Brocque, & Bellamy (2011)	Cochrane review	Public	A review of 35 studies evaluating the effect of speed cameras on speeding, crashes, injuries, and deaths. All studies assessed the above before and after the introduction of speed cameras, and comparing these findings with comparable roads with no speed camera enforcement.	All studies in the review reported reductions in average speeds following the introduction of speed cameras. Reductions in speeding vehicles ranged from 8% to 70% with most countries reporting reductions in the order of 10-35%. Of the 28 studies that measured the effect on crashes 100% found a reduction in the number of crashes following the implementation of the speed camera program. Consistency of the reported findings demonstrate that speed cameras are a worthwhile intervention for reducing the number of road traffic injuries and deaths.
Regher, Montufar, Sweatman, & Clayton (2010)	Conference paper	Public	Exposure based evidence to assess the regulatory compliance of long truck operations in the Canadian Prairie Region was used.	Analysis indicated that 99% of observed long trucks were compliant with the undivided highway network restriction and prescribed weight limits. Using exposure-based collision rates to determine safety compliance, available evidence indicated that long trucks had a lower collision rate than other articulated trucks.

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