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Principles for the use of antimicrobials: 2008 table of contents


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PRINCIPLES FOR THE USE OF ANTIMICROBIALS: 2008

TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Objectives Page 2
II. Classifications of Therapy Page 2
III. Available Antimicrobial Agents Page 4
IV. Oral Alternatives to IV Antimicrobials Page 6
V. Intravenous Antimicrobials Page 7
VI. Synercid & Linezolid & Daptomycin Policy Pages 14 & 15
VII. Treatment Guideline for Healthcare-Associated Page 18

Pneumonia


VIII.Treatment Guideline for C. difficile infection Page 20
IX. Treatment Guideline for CAP Page 22
X. Treatment Guideline for IV Catheter infection Page 25
XI. Treatment Guideline for Neutropenic fever Page 27
XII. Prophylaxis in Cirrhosis and Upper GI Bleed Page 28
XIII. Protocol for MRSA decolonization Page 29


GUIDELINES FOR THE USE OF ANTIMICROBIALS


  1. OBJECTIVES: To help physicians in the selection of optimal antimicrobial therapy.

Antimicrobial agents are the most important intervention in the therapy of infectious diseases. An optimal antimicrobial is the one that not only will resolve the infectious process of the patient but will also avoid emergence of resistant bacteria, avoid potential toxic effects and will minimize health care cost.

II. DEVELOPMENT


Guidelines for the use of antimicrobial agents have been developed by the A multidisciplinary group including physicians representing infectious diseases, surgery and internal medicine, hospital pharmacists, microbiologists and infection preventionists. After review by the medical staff committee, this document has been approved by the Pharmacy and Therapeutics Committee and are to be used to guide decision-making regarding antimicrobial use in this facility
III. CLASSIFICATIONS OF THERAPY
Clinical situations in which antimicrobial agents are regularly used are defined as follows:
1. Prophylactic Use

2. Therapeutic Use  Empiric Therapy

 Known Pathogen Therapy

 Switch Therapy


Prophylactic Use:

In the clinical situation of "prophylactic use", the antimicrobial is used to prevent infection. In the hospital, the most commonly encountered prophylaxis is in surgery to prevent wound infection. There are also other indications for prophylactic use of antimicrobials, e.g. prevention of bacterial endocarditis, influenza A., post exposure prophylaxis against HIV infection (needle stick), or meningococcal exposure.


Empiric Therapy:

In the clinical situation of "empiric use", the antimicrobial is used as initial therapy directed to eradicate the most likely pathogens. Before initiation of antimicrobials, appropriate specimens for stains and cultures of microorganisms should be obtained. Results of identification and susceptibility of microorganisms are likely to be available in the following 48 to 72 hours. The use of broad-spectrum antibiotics or combination therapy is usually necessary to cover the different organisms capable of causing an infection. The use of agents in this situation should not extend beyond the time required to obtain results of cultures and susceptibility. Criteria for the use of particular intravenous antimicrobials agents in the clinical situation of "empiric use" are described in appendix A.


Known Pathogen Therapy:

In the clinical situation of "known pathogen use", the antimicrobial is used when the microbiology laboratory has identified the microorganism causing the infection and the susceptibility pattern is known. If during "empiric use", the patient was started on combination therapy or broad-spectrum antibiotic, the antimicrobial spectrum should now be narrowed to cover the microorganism identified as the etiologic agent. Antimicrobial therapy should be continued with an appropriate narrow spectrum antibiotic to avoid colonization with resistant organisms and superinfection. Criteria for the use of particular intravenous antimicrobial agents in the clinical situation of "known pathogen use" are described in appendix A.


Switch Therapy  Conversion from IV to PO

In the clinical situation of "switch therapy use", oral antimicrobials replace intravenous usage for completion of therapy. Intravenous therapy is almost always employed in serious infections to ensure maximal serum levels. In patients with infections localized in areas of poor antibiotic penetration (i.e. meningitis, endocarditis), and in patients with immunodeficiency states (i.e. neutropenia), intravenous antibiotics are recommended for the complete duration of therapy. The great majority of patients with infection do not require completion of the antimicrobial course with intravenous therapy. Transition to oral therapy can usually be employed.


The following criteria were developed for transition from parenteral to oral antimicrobial:
a) no clinical diagnosis that requires intravenous therapy for the full treatment

course (i.e., meningitis, endocarditis);
b) patient has adequate gastrointestinal absorption of drugs (i.e., no diarrhea,

no vomiting);
c) patient is afebrile for at least 8 hours;
d) signs and symptoms related to infection are improving;
e) the white blood cell count is normalizing.
If the patient meets the above five criteria, the completion of the treatment may be achieved with an oral agent.

Oral antimicrobials recommended as alternatives to parenteral therapy are presented in Section V. The choice of oral agents is guided by pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic principles.



IV. AVAILABLE ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS (trade names in parentheses)
TYPE PARENTERAL ORAL

PENICILLINS, FIRST AQUEOUS PCN G PEN VK

GENERATION BENZATHINE PCN G

PROCAINE PCN G


PENICILLINS,SECOND NAFCILLIN DICLOXACILLIN

GENERATION (PENICILLINASE(nafcil, nallpen) (dycill, dynapen)

RESISTANT ANTI 

STAPHYLOCOCCAL)
PENICILLINS, THIRD AMPICILLIN(omnipen) AMOXICILLIN(amoxil)

GENERATION (EXTENDED


SPECTRUM)

ANTIPSEUDOMONAL PEN PIPERACILLIN (pipracil)

CILLINS



BETALACTAM/ AMPICILLIN/SULBACTAM(unasyn) AMOXIL/CLAVUL(augmentin)

BETA LACTAMASE INHIBITOR PIPERACILLIN/TAZOBACTAM(zosyn)

CEPHALOSPORIN, FIRST CEFAZOLIN (ancef,kefzol) CEPHALEXIN (keflex)

GENERATION
CEPHALOSPORINS, SECOND CEFUROXIME (zinacef, kefurox) CEFUROXIME (ceftin)

GENERATION CEFOXITIN (mefoxin) CEFPROZIL (cefzil)
CEPHALOSPORINS, THIRD CEFTRIAXONE (rocephin) CEFIXIME(suprax)

GENERATION CEFOTAXIME (claforan) CEFPODOXIME (vantin)

CEFTAZIDIME(fortaz,tazicef)
CEPHALOSPORINS, FOURTH CEFEPIME(Maxipime)

GENERATION
MONOBACTAM AZTREONAM (azactam)

CARBAPENEMS IMIPENEM/CILASTATIN(primaxin)

MEROPENEM(merrem)

DORIPENEM (doribax)

ERTAPENEM (invanz)


AMINOGLYCOSIDES GENTAMICIN (garamycin)

TOBRAMYCIN (nebcin)

AMIKACIN (amikin)

MACROLIDES ERYTHROMYCIN ERYTHROMYCIN

AZITHROMYCIN(zithromax) AZITHROMYCIN(zithromax)

CLARITHROMYCIN (biaxin)


TYPE PARENTERAL ORAL

TETRACYCLINES DOXYCYCLINE(vibramycin) TETRACYCLINE

DOXYCYCLINE (vibramycin) MINOCYCLINE(minocin)


RIFAMYCIN RIFAMPIN(rifadin) RIFAMPIN(rifadin,rimactane)

RIFABUTIN(mycobutin)


SULFONAMIDES TMP/SMX(bactrim,septra) TMP/SMX(bactrim,septra)

SULFADIAZINE

DAPSONE

GLYCYLCYCLINES TIGECYCLINE(tygacil)*

LINCOSAMIDE CLINDAMYCIN (cleocin) CLINDAMYCIN (cleocin)
GLYCOPEPTIDE VANCOMYCIN (vancocin) VANCOMYCIN(vancocin)
NITROIMIDAZOLE METRONIDAZOLE(flagyl) METRONIDAZOLE(flagyl)
QUINOLONES LEVOFLOXACIN (levaquin) LEVOFLOXACIN (levaquin)*

CIPROFLOXACIN (cipro) CIPROFLOXACIN (cipro)

MOXIFLOXACIN (avelox) MOXIFLOXACIN (avelox)

STREPTOGRAMIN QUINUPRISTIN/DALFOPRISTIN (synercid)*



OXAZOLIDINONE LINEZOLID(zyvox) LINEZOLID (zyvox)
CYCLIC LIPOPEPTIDE DAPTOMYCIN(cubicin)

ANTIMYCOBACTERIALS ISONIAZID-INH(nydrazid) ISONIAZID-INH(tubizid) RIFAMPIN(rifadin) RIFAMPIN(rifadin,rimactane)

STREPTOMYCIN RIFABUTIN (mycobutin)

PYRAZINAMIDE

ETHAMBUTOL (myambutol)

CYCLOSERINE (seromycin)
ANTIFUNGALS AMPHOTERICIN B (fungizone) FLUCONAZOLE (difulcan)

FLUCONAZOLE (diflucan) KETOCONAZOLE (nizoral)

CASPOFUNGIN(cancidas) ITRACONAZOLE (sporanox)

VORICONAZOLE(vfend) VORICONAZOLE (vfend)

ANIDULAFUNGIN(eraxis) FLUCYTOSINE (ancobon)

MICAFUNGIN(micamine)


ANTIVIRALS ACYCLOVIR(zovirax) ACYCLOVIR (zovirax) GANCICLOVIR(cytovene) FAMCYCLOVIR (famvir)

VALICYCLOVIR (valtrex)

AMANTADINE (symmetrel)
V. ORAL ALTERNATIVES TO IV ANTIMICROBIALS

When clinically indicated, switch from the following parenteral to oral agents is suggested.



PARENTERAL AGENT ORAL AGENT

1. PENICILLIN G (1-4 mu q4-6h) PEN VK 500 mg qid

2. NAFCILLIN (1 g q4h) DICLOXACILLIN 500 mg qid

3. AMPICILLIN (2 g q6H) AMOXICILLIN 500 mg tid

4. AMP./SULBACT (3.0 g q6h) AMOX./CLAVUL 875 mg bid

5. CEFAZOLIN (1 g q8h) CEPHALEXIN 500 mg qid

6. CEFUROXIME (1.5 g q8h) CEFUROXIME AXET 500 mg bid

7. CEFOXITIN (1-2 g q8h to 6h) AMOX./CLAVUL 875mg bid

8. CLINDAMYCIN (600 mg q8h) CLINDAMYCIN 300 450 mg qid

9. METRONIDAZOLE (500 mg q12h) METRONIDAZOLE 500 mg tid

10. CIPROFLOXACIN (400 mg q12h) CIPROFLOXACIN 750 mg bid

11. LEVOFLOXACIN (500mg q24h) LEVOFLOXACIN 500mg q24h

12. MOXIFLOXACIN (400mg q24h) MOXIFLOXACIN 400mg q24h

13. ERYTHROMYCIN (1 g q6h) ERYTHROMYCIN 500mg qid

14. AZITHROMYCIN (500 mg q24h) AZITHROMYCIN 500mg q24h
15. When the following are used for therapy of Enterobactericae or Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections:
A. AMINOGLYCOSIDE CIPROFLOXACIN 750 mg bid

B. AZTREONAM

C. 3rd GENERATION CEPHALOSPORIN

D. ANTI-PSEUDOMONAL PENICILLINS

E. CARBAPENEMS

F. 4th GENERATION CEPH. (CEFEPIME)


17. When the following are used for therapy of mixed aerobic and anaerobic infections:
A. ANTI-PSEUDOMONAL PENICILLINS

WITH BETA-LACTAMASE INHIBITOR



CIPROFLOXACIN 750mg bid

AND

CLINDAMYCIN 300-450mg qid OR METRONIDAZOLE 500mg tid

  1. CARBAPENEMS

18. When the following are used for therapy of resistant gram positive infections:

A. VANCOMYCIN

B. QUINUPRISTIN/DALFOPRISTIN* LINEZOLID 600mg bid*


  1. LINEZOLID*

  2. DAPTOMYCIN*


*The use of Quinupristin/Dalfopristin or Linezolid or Daptomycin

requires approval by Infectious Diseases physician
VI. APPENDIX A

GUIDELINES FOR THE USE OF PARENTERAL ANTIMICROBIALS

The following guidelines are organized schematically for each main intravenous antimicrobial, with its more common indications. The recommended doses are based on normal renal function.


1. PENICILLIN G: Remains the primary agent for treatment of documented Streptococcus pyogenes. Penicillin G should be used to treat S. pneumoniae and Neisseria meningitidis infections only after susceptibility is known. The high dose regimen should only be used for treatment of endocarditis and meningitis.

RECOMMENDED DOSES: Usual dose: 2 mu q 6h High dose: 4 mu q 4h


2. AMINOPENICILLIN = AMPICILLIN: To be used for treatment of suspected or documented infections caused by Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium. For serious infections combination therapy with gentamicin is indicated. Ampicillin is also indicated in the treatment of suspected or documented meningitis caused by Listeria monocytogenes.

The high dose regimen should be used for treatment of endocarditis and meningitis.

RECOMMENDED DOSES: Usual dose 2 g q6h High dose: 2 g q4h


3. ANTI-STAPHYLOCOCCAL PCN = NAFCILLIN: To be used in suspected or documented infections caused by susceptible Staphylococcus aureus. The high dose regimen should only be used for treatment of endocarditis or meningitis.

RECOMMENDED DOSES: Usual dose 1 g q 4 6h High dose 2 g q 4h


4. PCN WITH BETA-LACTAMASE INHIBITOR = AMPICILLIN/SULBACTAM: To be used in community acquired infections when the organism is suspected or documented to be resistant to ampicillin, but sensitive to ampicillin/sulbactam. Sulbactam inhibits beta lactamase found in Staphylococcus aureus, Hemophilus influenzae, Bacteroides sp, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli.

RECOMMENDED DOSE: 3g q 6h


5. ANTI PSEUDOMONAL PENICILLIN = PIPERACILLIN: To be used for infections where Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Enterobacteriaceae are documented or suspected. In severe Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections, combination therapy should be considered. High dose is only recommended for neutropenic patients. Because of dose dependent elimination, the dosing interval for this ureidopenicillin may be increased with a higher dose.

RECOMMENDED DOSES: Usual dose 3 to 4g q 6h or 5 g q 8h High dose 5g q 6h



6. ANTI PSEUDOMONAL PENICILLINS WITH BETA LACTAMASE INHIBITORS

TICARCILLIN/CLAVULANIC ACID or PIPERACILLIN/TAZOBACTAM: To be used in documented or suspected infections caused by a combination of resistant gram negative rods plus gram positive cocci producers of beta lactamase such as Staphylococcus aureus. When severe Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections are suspected, combination therapy should be considered. In patients with documented P. aeruginosa infections, since the beta-lactamase inhibitor has no effect against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. , the use of an antipseudomonal penicillin without the beta lactamase inhibitor is recommended. High dose therapy is only recommended for neutropenic patients or patients with suspected/documented Pseudomonas pneumonia

RECOMMENDED DOSES:

Ticarcillin/Clavulanic Acid: Usual dose 3.1g q 6h High dose is 3.1g q 4h

Piperacillin/Tazobactam:Usual dose 3.375g q 6h or 4.5g q8h High dose is 4.5g q 6h


7. FIRST GENERATION CEPHALOSPORIN = CEFAZOLIN: To be used in skin and soft tissue infections, and other infections caused by susceptible Staphylococcus aureus. It may be used in urinary tract infections when susceptible gram negative organisms are identified. The high dose regimen should be used only for endocarditis. Cefazolin does not penetrate into the blood brain barrier and should not be used to treat meningitis.

RECOMMENDED DOSE: Usual dose: 1 g q 8h High dose: 2 g q 8h


8. SECOND GENERATION CEPHALOSPORIN = CEFUROXIME: To be used in documented or suspected infections by aerobic gram negative organisms such as Moraxella catarrhalis and Hemophilus influenzae, resistant to Cefazolin and Ampicillin, but sensitive to Cefuroxime. (Note: Cefuroxime does not have anaerobic coverage.)

RECOMMENDED DOSE: 1.5 g q 8h


9. SECOND GENERATION CEPHALOSPORIN WITH ANTI ANAEROBIC ACTIVITY = CEFOXITIN: To be used in documented or suspected infections caused by mixed aerobic and anaerobic organisms sensitive to Cefoxitin.

RECOMMENDED DOSE: 1 or 2 g q 8h to q 6h




10. THIRD GENERATION CEPHALOSPORINS WITHOUT ANTI PSEUDOMONAL ACTIVITY= CEFTRIAXONE and CEFOTAXIME: These have almost the same antibacterial activity and equal toxicity. From a clinical point of view, these antibiotics are essentially interchangeable. The usual dose is indicated for treatment of community acquired and nosocomial infections (e.g. UTI, soft tissue, pneumonia) when aerobic gram negative organisms resistant to the 1st and 2nd generation cephalosporins, but sensitive to 3rd generation are suspected or documented. The high dose regimen is recommended only for therapy of meningitis.

RECOMMENDED DOSES:

*Ceftriaxone: Usual dose 1 g q 24h High dose 2 g q 12h

Cefotaxime: Usual dose 1g q8h High dose 2g q 6h


*FDA alert issued September 2007 regarding combined use of iv calcium with iv

ceftriaxone.

Cases of fatal reactions with ceftriaxone-calcium precipitates in lungs and

kidneys in neonates have been reported.

Theoretical possibility exists for an interaction between ceftriaxone and IV

calcium-containing solutions in patients other than neonates. Therefore,

ceftriaxone and calcium-containing solutions, including continuous calcium-

containing infusions such as parenteral nutrition, should not be mixed or co-

administered to any patient irrespective of age, even via different infusion

lines at different sites. Ceftriaxone and IV calcium-containing solutions

should not be administered within 48 hours of each other in any patient.
If there is anticipated need for use of iv calcium products, consider use of cefotaxime in place of the ceftriaxone is recommended.

11. THIRD GENERATION CEPHALOSPORIN WITH ANTI PSEUDOMONAL ACTIVITY = CEFTAZIDIME: Used in suspected or documented infections by Pseudomonas aeruginosa sensitive to Ceftazidime. The high dose regimen is recommended only for therapy of meningitis. In severe Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections, combination therapy should be considered.

RECOMMENDED DOSE: Usual dose 1 g q 8h High dose 2 g q 8h


12. FOURTH GENERATION CEPHALOSPORIN = CEFEPIME: To be used in severe suspected or documented infections caused by aerobic gram negative or gram-positive organisms that are resistant to other beta lactam antibiotics, but susceptible to cefepime. Cefepime has no activity against Bacteroides fragilis. High dose is recommended only for use in neutropenia.

RECOMMENDED DOSE: 1 or 2 g q 12h High dose 2 g q 8h



13. MONOBACTAM = AZTREONAM: To be used in suspected or documented infections caused by aerobic gram negative organisms. For empiric therapy of nosocomial infections, Aztreonam should be used with another antibiotic to cover gram positive organisms. High dose is recommended only for therapy of meningitis.

RECOMMENDED DOSE: Usual dose 1 to 2 g q 8h High dose 2 g q 6h



14.CARBAPENEMS WITH ANTI-PSEUDOMONAL ACTIVITY IMIPENEM/CILASTATIN and MEROPENEM and Doripenem: To be used in suspected or documented infections caused by aerobic gram negative organisms that are resistant to other beta lactam antibiotics, but sensitive to one of the carbapenems. To be used in the treatment of polymicrobial infections (e.g. 2 or more documented organisms) where multidrug regimens with potentially additive toxicity would otherwise be necessary. In severe Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections, combination therapy should be considered.

Doripenem is FDA approved only for complicated intra-abdominal infections and complicated UTI/pyelonephritis.

In regards to complicated intra-abdominal infections these guidelines limit the use of carbapenems to cases of tertiary peritonitis caused by documented or suspected resistant nosocomial pathogens.
RECOMMENDED DOSE Imipenem/cilastatin: 1g q 8h

Meropenem: 1 g q8h

Doripenem 500mg q8h
15. CARBAPENEMS WITHOUT ANTI-PSEUDOMONAL ACTIVITY

ERTAPENEM: To be used in suspected or documented infections caused by aerobic gram negative organisms that are resistant to other beta lactam antibiotics, but sensitive to ertapenem. To be used in the treatment of polymicrobial infections (e.g. 2 or more documented organisms) where multidrug regimens with potentially additive toxicity would otherwise be necessary.
RECOMMENDED DOSE: 1g q 24h

16. AMINOGLYCOSIDES = TOBRAMYCIN and GENTAMICIN and AMIKACIN: Aminoglycosides are not to be used as monotherapy. Use in combination with a beta lactam antibiotic for serious gram negative infections, and streptococcal or staphylococcal endocarditis. Gentamicin is indicated for combination therapy of Enterococcus infection. The use of amikacin is reserved for the treatment of organisms resistant to gentamicin and tobramycin. Consult pharmacy for dosing recommendations for patients with renal impairment or for patients who are morbidly obese.

RECOMMENDED DOSE OF GENTAMICIN AND TOBRAMYCIN FOR GRAM NEGATIVE INFECTIONS: 7 mg/kg once daily.

RECOMMENDED DOSE OF AMIKACIN FOR RESISTANT GRAM NEGATIVE INFECTIONS: 15mg/kg once daily.

Obtain peak and 10-hour post peak (random) level with first dose. Adjust interval and dose per levels.
16.1 TOBI INHALATION: Tobramycin inhalation solution

Tobramycin administered by inhalation is restricted.

This medication is indicated for the treatment of bronchitis when Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been isolated by bronchoscopy and pneumonia has been ruled out by CT scan.

This agent may only be used with the approval of the ID service.
17. MACROLIDES = ERYTHROMYCIN and AZITHROMYCIN: To be used in suspected or documented infections, caused by atypical organisms such as Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae and Legionella pneumophila.

RECOMMENDED DOSES

Erythromycin: 0.5 1g q 6h

Azithromycin: 500mg qd


18. QUINOLONE ANTIBIOTICS
For these guidelines the classification of fluoroquinolones is based on the spectrum of activity and clinical applications of the various agents. The separation of these agents into three generations is not based on chronological market availability, or chemical structure. Guidelines were developed for the intravenous quinolones that are to be used in the management of infections of hospitalized patients. The appropriate dose of these agents is dependent on both the site of infection as well as the severity of infection. These factors should be considered when selecting the dose of a given quinolone. Some general guidelines for use that apply to all generations include:

a. Fluoroquinolones are antibiotics with good activity against E.coli and other Enterobactericae that commonly cause urinary tract infection. These agents are indicated for therapy of hospitalized patients with lower or upper urinary tract infection.

b. Because of good penetration into prostatic tissue and good activity against Enterobactericae they are indicated for therapy of prostatitis.

c. Because of their activity against Salmonella, Shigella, and other gram negative enteric pathogens, they are indicated for the treatment of gastrointestinal infections.



  1. Fluoroquinolones should not be used for uncomplicated community acquired skin and soft tissue infections where the predominant pathogens are streptococci and staphylococci. The preferred agent in the treatment of these infections is a first generation cephalosporin.

1st generation quinolones



-CIPROFLOXACIN

1st generation quinolones such as ciprofloxacin have good activity against aerobic gram negative rods, but reduced activity against Streptococcus pneumoniae and other Streptococci and no activity against anaerobes. Due to the above, ciprofloxacin is not recommended for the empiric therapy of community acquired respiratory tract infections. This agent may be used as mono therapy for mild Pseudomonal infections, but should be used in combination with antipseudomonal betalactam antibiotics for severe infections involving this pathogen.



Ciprofloxacin: To be used in suspected or documented Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections or in the treatment of other multi drug resistant gram negative organisms.
RECOMENDED DOSE: Intravenous: 400mg q12h

2nd generation quinolones



-LEVOFLOXACIN

-MOXIFLOXACIN*

These agents have enhanced activity against gram positive organisms including Streptococcus pneumoniae. These agents are effective in the treatment of penicillin resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae( PRSP). They are also active against the common gram-negative pathogens such as Hemophilus influenzae, Moraxella cattarrhalis as well as atypical pathogens such as Legionella pneumophila, Chlamydia pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae that may cause community acquired pneumonia.



*Note that due to significant difference in cost moxifloxacin is the preferred 2nd generation quinolone over levofloxacin.

Moxifloxacin: This agent has enhanced activity against gram positive organisms including Streptococcus pneumoniae. This agent is effective in the treatment of penicillin resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae( PRSP). Moxifloxacin is also active against the common gram-negative pathogens such as Hemophilus influenzae, Moraxella cattarrhalis as well as atypical pathogens such as Legionella pneumophila, Chlamydia pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae that commonly cause community acquired pneumonia. Moxifloxacin can also be used for the treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infection in patients with a history of serious beta-lactam allergy.

Note that due to low urinary penetration, moxifloxacin is not indicated for treatment of UTI.


RECOMMENDED DOSE FOR MOXIFLOXACIN IS: 400mg q 24h
Levofloxacin: To be used in community acquired pneumonia when Enterobactericae are suspected or in patients with risk factors for penicillin resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Risk factors for PRSP include recent use of beta-lactam antibiotics, alcohol abuse, immunosuppression, age >65 years and in patients with multiple comorbities or those in contact with children in daycare. Levofloxacin can also be used for the treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infection in patients with a history of serious beta-lactam allergy.
RECOMMENDED DOSE: 500mg q 24h

Uncomplicated UTI: 250mg q 24h

Complicated skin and soft tissue infection and Nosocomial pneumonia: 750mg q 24h

Note oral levofloxacin is Non-formulary




19. Glycylcyclines = Tigecycline*: To be used in documented or suspected complicated skin and skin structure infections and also in complicated intra-abdominal infections. This antibiotic has a broad spectrum of activity including activity against MRSA. It is lacking activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Proteus species and Providencia species
RECOMMENDED DOSE: 100mg loading dose then 50mg iv q12h
Note that tigecycline may only be used with the approval of the ID service.
20. VANCOMYCIN: Because of the emergence of resistance of enterococcus to vancomycin, it should be used selectively for:

1.Empiric treatment of suspected or documented MRSA infections



The empiric use of vancomycin should be discontinued after 72 hours if cultures are negative for MRSA or other beta-lactam resistant gram-positive organism.

2. Treatment of infections caused by gram-positive organisms resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics.


3. Treatment of infections caused by gram-positive organisms, in patients with a history of severe beta-lactam allergy.
The use of vancomycin is considered inappropriate when used for:

  1. Empiric treatment of febrile neutropenia, unless good evidence for gram-positive infection and high prevalence of MRSA.

  2. Single positive blood culture for coagulase-negative staphylococci when contamination is likely.

  3. Continued empiric use for presumed infections in patients whose cultures are negative for beta-lactam resistant gram-positive organisms.

  4. Treatment of infections when cultures are positive for gram-positive organisms susceptible to beta-lactam antibiotics.

  5. Treatment (chosen for convenience) of infections caused by beta-lactam sensitive organisms in patients who have renal failure.

  6. Systemic or local (e.g. Antibiotic lock) prophylaxis for infection or colonization of indwelling central or peripheral intravascular catheters.

  7. Routine prophylaxis for patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis or hemodialysis.

  8. Use of vancomycin solution for topical application or irrigation.

  9. Selective decontamination of the digestive tract.

  10. Eradication of MRSA colonization.

  11. Routine surgical prophylaxis, other than in a patient who has a life threatening allergy to beta-lactam antibiotics.

USUAL RECOMMENDED DOSE OF VANCOMYCIN: 15mg/kg q 12h

(Consult pharmacy for dosing recommendations for patients with decreased renal function or for patients who are morbidly obese.)

The usefulness of obtaining vancomycin serum levels is controversial. Vancomycin has time dependent killing against gram positive organisms. To optimize therapy, trough levels should be approximately four times the MIC of the infecting organism. Peak levels are not necessary except as an aid to the pharmacist when determining the appropriate dosing interval for a patient. In this institution, serum levels generally will be obtained on the 3rd day of therapy. Trough levels are recommended for patients with renal failure, on dialysis, or in patients on concomitant nephrotoxic drugs.
21. STREPTOGRAMIN = QUINUPRISTIN & DALFOPRISTIN (Synercid)

This agent is indicated for VRE faecium. It has no activity against E. faecalis. Due to its propensity for misuse (i.e. to “treat” colonization) and due to rapidly emerging resistance, This agent may only be used with the approval of the ID service.


22. Oxazolidinone = LINEZOLID (Zyvox)

This agent is indicated for treatment of VRE infections. It is also used selectively in the treatment of MRSA infections. Due to its propensity for misuse (i.e. to “treat” colonization) and due to rapidly emerging resistance. Linezolid may be used without ID approval when ordered by the MICU attending for treatment of pneumonia in patients requiring mechanical ventilation when MRSA is suspected or proven to be causing the infection. In all other cases the use of linezolid must be approved by the ID service.


23. CYCLIC LIPOPEPTIDE = DAPTOMYCIN (Cubicin)

This agent is indicated for the treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections. It has activity against resistant gram positive organisms. It has no activity against gram negative organisms.

Note this antibiotic should not be used in the treatment of pneumonia.

This agent may only be used with the approval of the ID service.
24. ANTIFUNGALS: The increasing use of systemic antifungals for prophylaxis has been associated with the emergence of more resistant non albicans candida species such as C.glabrata and C.krusei. In some centers, these species have surpassed C.albicans as a cause of candidemia. Also, an increased rate of C.albicans resistance to fluconazole has been documented in patients who received fluconazole previously. Because of these developments, the use of intravenous or oral systemic antifungals is not recommended for prophylaxis of fungal infections except in patients with prolonged neutropenia or patients with a solid organ transplant.
24.1 AMPHOTERICIN B (Fungizone): To be used as the initial antifungal of choice for suspected or documented systemic mycosis in critically ill patients.
Amphotericin is recommended as first line antifungal therapy in the treatment of patients with febrile neutropenia.
Recommended dose: Following a test dose, recommended dose is 0.3 to 1.5 mg/kg/day.

If the infusion is not well tolerated, adjunctive treatment with either acetaminophen, diphenhydramine, meperidine, heparin and/or steroids may be utilized.


24.2 AMPHOTERICIN B LIPID COMPLEX(Abelcet): Restricted to treatment of aspergillosis refractory to conventional amphotericin B. Also, may be used in patients with deteriorating renal function or in patients with a baseline Scr >/= 2mg/dl or in those intolerant of conventional amphotericin B.

Recommended dose: 5 mg/kg/day


24.3 FLUCONAZOLE(Diflucan): To be used in documented or suspected systemic candidiasis, esophageal, urinary tract candidiasis, or cryptococcal meningitis.

Recommended dose: 200 400 mg q24h.


24.4 ITRACONAZOLE(Sporanox) The intravenous formulation of itraconazole is restricted. Oral therapy is indicated to complete the course of therapy of Histoplasmosis.

This agent may only be used with the approval of the ID service.

24.5 VORICONAZOLE(Vfend): First line antifungal therapy for treatment of invasive aspergillosis. The intravenous or oral use of voriconazole is restricted.

May also be used for documented infection with non-albicans species of Candida when resistance to fluconazole is a concern.

Voriconazole is contraindicated with the concurrent use with the following medications: terfenadine,aztemizole,cisapride,pimozide,quinidine,sirolimus,rifampin,

Carbamazepine, long acting barbiturates(Phenobarbital), rifabutin and ergot alkaloids.

Usual recommended dose: 6mg/kg iv q12h x2 doses then 4mg/kg iv q12h

This agent may only be used with the approval of the ID service.
24.6 CASPOFUNGIN(Cancidas): Second line therapy of invasive aspergillosis and for treatment of febrile neutropenic patients. May also be used in the treatment of non-albicans species of candida.

Avoid concomitant use with cyclosporin (unless risk outweighs benefit), due to risk of increased liver function tests.

Patients receiving concurrent rifampin should receive caspofungin at a dose of 70mg daily.

Consider increasing the dose of caspofungin to 70mg daily if used concurrently with the following medications: efavirenz, nevirapine, phenytoin, dexamethasone, or carbamazepine.

Usual recommended dose is 70mg iv x1 dose then 50mg iv daily

This agent may only be used with the approval of the ID service.
24.7 ANIDULAFUNGIN(Eraxis): Second line therapy for the treatment of invasive Candida albicans infection. May also be used for infection with non-albicans species of Candida where resistance to fluoconazole is a concern.
Usual recommended dose: 200mg IV x1 dose then 100mg IV daily

This agent may only be used with the approval of the ID service.
24.8 Micafungin(Micamine): Second line therapy for the treatment of invasive Candida albicans infection. May also be used for infection with non-albicans species of Candida where resistance to fluoconazole is a concern.

Usual recommended dose:100mg iv q24h



This agent may only be used with the approval of the ID service.

The echinocandins(Micafungin, Anidulafungin, Caspofungin) may be used with the approval of the ID service for empiric treatment of candidemia pending results of sensitivity testing.






VII. Guidelines for Antibiotic Therapy of Healthcare-Associated Pneumonia (HAP)


*** See Flow Chart on Following Page

DAY OF DIAGNOSIS OF HAP

- Obtain cultures before starting antibiotics: sputum Gram’s stain/culture (in

patients without mechanical ventilation) or sputum Gram’s stain/quantitative

tracheal aspirate or BAL (in patients with mechanical ventilation) and 2 sets of

blood cultures (minimum 15 min apart).

- Evaluate for Risk Factors for Resistant Organisms (RFRO)

- Calculate the Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score (CPIS)

- Classify patients and start empiric antibiotic therapy.


DAY 3 AFTER DIAGNOSIS OF HAP


-Review cultures from day of diagnosis

-If initial CPIS < 6 calculate 72 hour CPIS

-Evaluate for Short Course Therapy

-Evaluate for De-escalation Therapy

DAY 7 TO 14 AFTER DIAGNOSIS OF HAP

-Evaluate for Discontinuation of Therapy


Antimicrobial therapy





RISK FACTORS FOR RESISTANT ORGANISMS
Antibiotics within the prior 30 days of diagnosis of nosocomial pneumonia

Patient hospitalized >5 days before the diagnosis of nosocomial pneumonia was made

Bronchiectasis

Known family member with multidrug-resistant pathogen

Documented colonization with resistant organisms

Patient hospitalized for 2 days or more within prior 90 days of the diagnosis of nosocomial pneumonia was made

Residence in a nursing home or extended care facility

Chronic dialysis within the prior 30 days, home infusion therapy (including antibiotics), or home wound care

Immunosuppression (cancer, AIDS, ESRD, end stage liver disease, end stage COPD, steroids,

chemotherapy/radiotherapy)


VIII. Guidelines for the treatment of



Clostridium difficile infection

I. Definitions:


A. Clostridium difficile infection

1. The presence of symptoms (usually diarrhea)

A.  6 watery stools over 36 hours

B. 3 unformed stools in 24 hours for 2 days



  1. 8 unformed stools in 48 hours

2. Stool enzyme immunoassay positive for toxin A

A. Testing 3 stools increases the likelihood of a positive test (true positive or false positive) by 10%.

B. Routine testing of more than 3 stools is not a cost-effective

diagnostic practice.


  1. Note that the lab will only perform testing for C.diff toxin on

stool specimens that contain fecal leukocytes.

For immunocompromized patients contact the micro lab to

have C.diff toxin assay performed.

3. Other


  1. Pseudomembranes seen on lower GI endoscopy in a

patient with diarrhea.

  1. A patient with an ileus without diarrhea (Occurs in <1% of

patients found to have C. diff colitis).
B. Treatment success

        1. Resolution of diarrhea

        2. Success may be in the presence of a positive C. diff toxin assay when the patient is colonized with the organism.

C. Treatment failure

The presence of diarrhea beyond the sixth day of treatment.


  1. Recurrence of C.diff infection

Recurrence of diarrhea within eight weeks of the end of

previous effective treatment for C. difficile infection.

II. Epidemiology
A. C. difficile is the most frequently identified cause of nosocomial diarrhea

B. Antimicrobial treatment and chemo therapy are risk factors for C difficile,

therefore, obtaining a history showing prior use of these medications

within the last 2 months is recommended before studies are performed.


III. Infection Prevention
A. Place patient in contact isolation.

  1. Prevention should be practiced by the use of hand washing, alcohol-based sanitizing agent, gloves, gowns and private rooms.

C. Isolation precautions should be continued until diarrhea is resolved.
IV. General treatment principles:

A. Antimicrobials should be discontinued if possible.

B. Therapy should be administered orally.

C. Do not use vancomycin as a first line agent because of the potential

development of bacterial resistance.

D. Do not use antiperistaltic agents.

E. Treat for 10 days.

F. Do not recheck stool to test for cure.



  1. Use metronidazole for relapses because nearly all patients respond to a

repeat course of this antibiotic.

H. Treatment of asymptomatic patients colonized with C. difficile is not

recommended.

I. Infectious Diseases consultation is recommended for the treatment of

complicated infections.
V. Specific treatments

A. First line treatment or recurrence:

metronidazole 500 mg PO TID X 10 days (or 250 mg PO QID X 10 days)


  1. Second line treatment: indicated only for patients failing

Metronidazole.

vancomycin 125 mg PO QID X 10 days

C. Third line treatment:

Consult Infectious diseases




IX. Guidelines for the treatment of

Community-Acquired Pneumonia (CAP)



Definitions:

Community acquired pneumonia is defined as a patient with a chest X-ray with evidence of a new pulmonary infiltrate (within 24 hrs of admission), plus at least one of the following: new or increased cough with/without sputum production, fever > 37.8 C (100 F), hypothermia < 35.6 C (96.0 F), changes in WBC (leukocytosis with/without a left shift, or leukopenia).

Risk factors for CAP due to drug-resistant S. pneumoniae or enteric gram-negative organisms: cardiopulmonary disease (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or congestive heart failure (CHF)), age > 65 yr, β-Lactam therapy within the past 3 mo, alcoholism, immunosuppression (including therapy with corticosteroids), multiple medical comorbidities, exposure to a child in a day care center, residence in a nursing home.

Risk factors for CAP due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa: structural lung disease (bronchiectasis), corticosteroid therapy (> 10 mg of prednisone per day), broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy for > 7 days in the past month, and malnutrition.

Criteria for switch to oral therapy: cough and shortness of breath improving, afebrile for  8 hours, WBC improving, and oral tolerance present.

General management principles:

  • If after 3 days of empiric treatment the patient is not improving (lack of clinical response) consider infectious diseases or pulmonary consultation. The patient may have resistant or unusual organisms.

  • Education about CAP and smoking cessation should be done during the hospitalization.

  • Consider vaccination against influenza virus and pneumococcus during hospitalization.

  • Consider in any young patient with pneumococcus pneumonia risk factors for HIV and the need for HIV test.

  • Empiric therapy with Vancomycin is not recommended in patients with CAP unless there is suspicion of MRSA

  • If aspiration suspected then consider a regimen with anti-anaerobic coverage.

  • Patients should be switched to oral therapy if they meet the four criteria above.



Treatment of hospitalized patients:
General Medical Ward patient


  • IV β-lactam (e.g., cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, ampicillin-sulbactam) PLUS IV or oral macrolide or doxycycline

OR

  • IV antipneumococcal fluoroquinolone alone (e.g. moxifloxacin, levofloxacin)



Intensive Care Unit

patient without risk for Pseudomonas aeruginosa


    • IV β-lactam (e.g., cefotaxime, ceftriaxone ampicillin-sulbactam) PLUS IV macrolide or IV fluoroquinolone




    • If β-lactam allergic (IV antipneumococcal fluoroquinolone PLUS IV clindamycin OR IV antipneumococcal fluoroquinolone PLUS IV vancomycin



Intensive Care Unit

patient with risk for Pseudomonas aeruginosa


  • IV antipseudomonal β-lactam (e.g., cefepime, piperacillin/tazobactam imipenem, meropenem,) PLUS IV antipseudomonal quinolone (ciprofloxacin)

OR
IV antipseudomonal β-lactam (e.g., cefepime, piperacillin/tazobactam

imipenem, meropenem, ) PLUS IV aminoglycoside PLUS IV macrolide



  • If β-lactam allergic: IV aztreonam PLUS IV aminoglycoside PLUS IV antipneumococcal fluoroquinolone

Empiric anti-Pseudomonal coverage should be discontinued and the

treatment regimen streamlined after 72 hours, if cultures prove negative for

Pseudomonas.


Duration of treatment:


  • Duration is individualized, depending upon the severity of illness, clinical response and infecting pathogen.

  • Switch therapy to oral antimicrobials should be performed if the patient meets the criteria.

X. Guidelines for the treatment of

Catheter related infections

Definitions:

A presumptive catheter related infection is defined as a patient with the presence of a central venous catheter (CVC),(i.e. tip in the central vein), a fever, and no other clear source of infection.


A confirmed catheter related infection is defined as documented growth of an organism from the tip of a catheter which reveals >15 colony forming units per high power field, PLUS a positive blood culture with the same organism, and no other clear source of infection.
General management principles:

  • Two blood cultures should be obtained before antibiotics are given, out of which one should be obtained percutaneously.

  • If there is a positive blood culture with no identified source of infection, consider removal of the catheter.

  • If the catheter is removed the tip should be sent for culture.

  • In a patient with documented bacteremia, the CVC should be removed if possible and the patient receive antibiotics by a peripheral venous catheter for at least 24 hours prior to replacement of the CVC .

  • Following initiation of treatment with or without catheter removal, repeat blood cultures should be obtained at least 24 hours after the start of antibiotic therapy to document clearance of bacteremia.

  • Infectious diseases consultation is recommended in the following scenarios:

    1. Catheter removal is not possible.

    2. When repeat blood cultures yield the same organism.

    3. If serious complications develop, such as, endocarditis, septic thrombophlebitis, or osteomyelitis.

    4. If unusual or resistant organisms are isolated.

  • Initial therapy should cover methicillin-resistant S. aureus until pathogen is known.


Treatment:

  • Empiric vancomycin:

Vancomycin 15mg/kg iv q12 hours

Consult pharmacy for dosing recommendations in patients with impaired

renal function.


  • Vancomycin should be discontinued in 48-72 hours if cultures are negative for MRSA or other beta-lactam resistant organism.



  • Pathogen directed: Methicillin Sensitive Staphylococcus aureus. Cefazolin




  • Septic and immunocompromised patients require additional empiric coverage for gram-negative bacilli.


Duration of treatment:

  • Give all patients with Staphylococcus aureus infection at least 14 days of intravenous antimicrobial treatment.

  • In patients with complicated Staphylococcus aureus infection, the duration of treatment depends upon the type of complication. An ID consultation is advised.

  • For all other organisms, guidelines for duration of treatment are not well established but 10-14 days of therapy is suggested in uncomplicated patients.

XI. Guidelines for the Empiric Treatment of Febrile Neutropenia

These guidelines apply only to patients in whom, after a complete

physical examination, a source of infection cannot be identified.


Definition: Single oral temperature  38.3 C (101F), (or) >38.0C (100.4F) over 1 hour (AND) ANC (absolute neutrophil count) < 500/mm3 (or) < 1000/mm3 with predicted decline to < 500/mm3


General management principles

-Obtain the following blood cultures before starting antibiotics:

1 set of blood cultures obtained from a peripheral vein

1 set of blood cultures obtained from any established central venous catheter

1 set of isolator blood cultures (for fastidious organisms) from peripheral vein


Treatment of hospitalized patients

Choose one of the following:


Cefepime or Imipenem/cilastatin or Meropenem or Ceftazadime


*If any of the following are present, empiric treatment for possible resistant Gram-positive organisms should be added to the initial antibiotic regimen.

Add Vancomycin IV when there is:

-Clinically suspected serious catheter-related infection

-Known colonization with penicillin and cephalosporin resistant pneumococci or MRSA

-Positive results of blood cultures for Gram-positive bacteria before final ID and sensitivity

available

-Hypotension or other evidence of cardiovascular involvement.

-Severe mucositis

-Patients receiving prophylaxis with quinolones before onset of fever

If the fever persists three to five days after the start of broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy, it is recommended to obtain an Infectious Disease consult before any modification of the empiric antibiotic regimen is performed.



XII. Antibiotic Prophylaxis for Cirrhotic patients

with Ascites and Upper GI Bleeding
Background: Bacterial infections are frequent in patients with cirrhosis.

GI bleeding favors the development of bacterial infection by increasing bacterial translocation, altering intestinal permeability and through impairment of phagocytic activity.

Studies indicate a decrease in the incidence of bacterial infections and decrease in short term mortality in patients who receive antibiotic prophylaxis.
Antibiotic prophylaxis is recommended when both of the following are present:

1) Known or suspected cirrhosis with the presence of ascites

2) Active upper GI bleeding
It is recommended that antibiotic prophylaxis be administered orally when possible or intravenously if the patient is unable to take oral medications.

Recommended length of treatment is 7 days.




XIII. Guidelines for MRSA Decolonization
1. Introduction:

Eradication of MRSA carriage may reduce the risk of MRSA infection and may decrease the transmission of MRSA by eliminating the reservoir for the organism.

Decolonization of MRSA is not routinely recommended for all colonized individuals. The decolonization protocol may be used to attempt eradication of the bacteria from select patients.

In some individuals decolonization cannot be achieved even with the use of this protocol.

Note, even after successful medical decolonization a number of patients have been shown to become re-colonized with MRSA several months later.

In some individuals MRSA decolonization may occur spontaneously over time without the use of antimicrobial therapy.


2. Indications:

Indications for decolonization:

-Patients with recurrent skin/soft tissue infection (>/= 2 infections within 12 months)

due to Community associated MRSA.

-Patients with MRSA colonization who have upcoming invasive surgical procedures

Ideally decolonization should begin 10 days prior to the planned surgery.

If unable to complete a 10 day course the therapy should begin no less than 72

hours prior to surgery.


3. Protocol for Decolonization

The patient should receive all of the following:

Bactrim DS 2 tablets orally BID or Doxycycline 100mg orally BID for 10 days.

Rifampin 600mg orally daily for 10 days*.

Intranasal mupirocin 2% ointment applied to both nares BID for 10 days.

Mupirocin 2% ointment under fingernails BID for 10 days.

Shower with Hibiclens (chlorhexidine gluconate) daily for 3 days then three times weekly for 3 weeks
*Do not use rifampin alone due to risk of emergence of resistance
4. Infectious Disease Approval

Use of the MRSA decolonization protocol must be approved by Infectious Disease.



Please contact the operator to determine the beeper number for the on-call ID physician.

This document is courtesy of the Division of Infectious Diseases at the University of Louisville. Revision date 12/08


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