Wang ch‘ung lun-hêng philosophical essays Traduits et annotés par Alfred forke

— How should I be a controversialist ? I cannot do otherwise ².

Now I also cannot do otherwise. Lies and folly appear in the garb of truth, veracity and sincerity are superseded by imposture. People are in a state of apathy, right and wrong are not determined, purple and vermilion confounded ³, and tiles mixed up with jade-stones. As regards my feelings, how could my heart endure such a state ? The lackey in Wei riding the outer horse _p1.086 transgressed his functions, crying out for the carriage. His sympathy carried him away, for he was apprehending a danger for his prince ⁴. Critics commiserate the world, and feel sorry for its deceptions, a sentiment similar to that of the outrider in Wei. A sorrowful mind and a melancholy spirit disturb the tranquil fluid in our breast, which tells upon our years, shortens our span, and is not beneficial to our life. It is a greater misfortune than that suffered by Yen Hui ⁵, and against the rules of Huang Ti and Lao Tse, and nothing which men like to do. But there was no help, therefore I wrote the Lun-hêng. Its style is indifferent, but the meaning all right, the diction bad, but the feeling good. The Chêng-wu ⁶ treats of the system of government ; all the chapters of the Lun-hêng may be read by ordinary people, for it is like writings of other scholars.

As for the Nine Inventions and the Three Exaggerations, and the essays on Death and on Ghosts ⁷, the world has long been led astray by the errors exposed therein, and people did not become aware of it.

When a ruler goes wrong, representations must be addressed to the highest place, when the citizens are blindfold, one speaks to them. If this be of effect, their leader will learn also. I fervently desire to rouse the misguided minds, and to teach them, how to tell the full from the hollow. As soon as the difference of reality and emptiness is fully understood, specious arguments will be discarded, and then the progress made in true and real knowledge will daily increase.

*

Some say that the sages create, whereas the worthies relate, and that, if worthies create, it is wrong. The Lun-hêng and the Chêng-wu are creations, they think. These works are neither creations nor relations. The Five Classics can be regarded as creations. The History of the Grand Annalist ¹, the Introduction of Liu Tse Chêng ², and the Records of Pan Shu P‘i ³ may be called _p1.087 relations, and the ‘New Reflections’ ⁴ of Huan Chün Shan and the ‘Critical Reflections’ ⁵ of Tsou Po Ch‘i ⁶, discussions. Now the Lun-hêng and the Chêng-wu are like the two Reflections of Huan Chün Shan and Tsou Po Chi, and not what they call creations.

In their reports to the throne and their memorials the memorialists use to propose useful measures. There is always the desire to help the government. Now the creators of classical works are like those memorialists. Their words proceed from the innermost heart, and it is their hand which reduces them to writing. Both cases are identical. In regard to those who address the emperor one speaks of memorialising, whereas for those records another word has been adopted viz. writing.

During the first years of Chien-Ch‘u ¹, there was a great dearth in Chung-chou ². The people from Yin-ch‘uan ³ and Ju-nan ⁴ had to _p1.088 leave their homes, and were scattered in all directions. His Holy Majesty felt very much distressed, and many edicts were issued. The writer of the Lun-hêng presented a report ⁵ to the prefect, urging that all dissipations and extravagancies should be prohibited in order to provide for the time of need. His suggestions were not accepted however. He went home and entitled the draft of his report ‘Provisions for Times of Want’.

When the grain is used for the distillation of wine, robbery is rampant, and as long as there is much drunkenness, robberies never cease. In a memorial sent to the prefect the writer proposed that the use of spirits should be interdicted, and afterwards gave to this report the name ‘Prohibition of Spirits’. From this it may be seen that the writing of the classical authors is like that of memorialists. Those reports are regarded as independent creations presented to the emperor. Reports and memorials to the throne are always creations.

In the Ch‘êng of Chin, the T‘ao-wu of Ch‘u ⁶, and the Ch‘un-ch‘iu of Lu persons and things are all different. As regards the diagrams ch‘ien and k‘un of the Yiking, the yuan ⁷ of the Ch‘un-ch‘iu and the mystical principle of Yang Tse Yün, they use diverse terms for divination and time periods. From this we may infer that the Lun-hêng and the Chêng-wu have the same aim as the memorials of T‘ang Lin and the essays of Ku Yung.

The Han time is very rich in literary talents, and the number of essays is especially large. Yang Ch‘êng Tse Chang produced the Yüeh-ching ⁸ and Yang Tse Yün the T‘ai-hsüan-ching. These two books were current in the court and read in the side-halls. The impression they caused was enormous, they were not relations but creations, and people doubted, whether the ingenious authors were not sages. The court found nothing to blame in them. Now, fancy the Lun-hêng with its minute discussions and thorough arguments, intended to explain the common errors and elucidate the right and wrong principles so, that future generations can clearly see the difference between truth and falsehood ! Lest all this be lost, I have committed it to the writing tablets : remarks on chapters and passages of the classics of our ancestors, and on queer sayings of former _p1.089 masters. I offer critical remarks and reject many common traditions. The delusion caused by such traditions and the spread of so many lying books give endless pain to the knowing. Confucius said :

— When a man is touched by poetry, he cannot remain silent. When I am moved, I cannot keep quiet, but must speak.

Jade is being confounded with stones. People cannot distinguish it, as for instance the inspector of works in Ch‘u took jade for a stone, and suddenly ordered Pien Ho to have his foot cut off ¹. Right is being turned into wrong, and falsehood into truth. How is it possible not to speak of it ?

As the common traditions are full of exaggerations, so the common books teem with falsehoods. Tsou Yen e. g. pretends that our world ² is one continent, and that beyond the four seas there are still nine other continents like our world ³. Huai Nan Tse says in his book that, when Kung Kung, fighting for the throne with Chuan Hsü, was not victorious, he ran against Mount Pu-chou in his wrath so, that he caused the ‘Pillar of Heaven’ to break, and the confines of the earth to be smashed ⁴. In Yao’s time ten suns appeared simultaneously. Yao shot an arrow at nine of them ⁵. During the battle fought by the Duke of Lu-yang ⁶ the sun went down. Swinging his spear he beckoned to the sun, when he came back. There are a great many books and records of a similar nature in the world. Truth and reality are drowned in a flood of inventions and fabrications. Can we remain silent, when our heart swells to overflowing, and the pencil trembles in our hand ?

Discussing a question we must examine into it with our mind, and demonstrate it by facts, and, if there be any inventions, proofs must be given. As the history of the Grand Annalist testifies, Hsü Yu ⁷ did not hide, nor did Tan, the crown-prince of Yen, cause the sun to revert to the meridian. Nobody can read these passages without applauding.

Now I have written the essays on Death and on the False Reports about the Dead ² to show that the deceased have no consciousness, and cannot become ghosts, hoping that, as soon as my readers have grasped this, they will restrain the extravagance of the burials, and become more economical. Such would be the advantage derived from the Lun-hêng. Provided that my words have this effect, what would it matter, if my work were a creation ?

The writing of Ts‘ang Hsieh is universally used to record things, the carriages of Hsi Chung for locomotion, the clothes of Po Yü as a protection against heat and cold, and the tiled houses of Chieh to keep off wind and rain ³. If, irrespective of their usefulness or obnoxiousness, such things be solely found fault with for being innovations, then men like Ts‘ang Hsieh would have to be condemned, and the fifteen dynasties at the beginning of history all be blame-worthy ⁴. Provided that a thing be useful, there is no harm, even if it should be an innovation, and if there he no harm, what can be amiss ? In ancient times great public entertainments were given by
imperial order with the object of seeing the customs and learning _p1.091 the feelings of the people. Then the Odes ⁵ originated among the people. The holy emperors might have said,

— Ye, people, how dare you produce such novel things ?,

and have thrown them into prison, and destroyed their Odes. This was not done, and the Odes were thus handed down. Now the Lun-hêng and the Chêng-wu are like the Odes. I trust that they will not be condemned, before they have been perused.

This is the origin of the Lun-hêng. The reason why people so often take exception to new productions is that they often contain so many unfounded assertions and disparaging remarks on others. The Lun-hêng aims at truth and dislikes all wild speculations. The chapters entitled : Ch‘i-shih ¹, Hsüan Han, Hui kuo, and Yen fu ² are full of praise and well-deserved applause ³, and not disparaging at all. Such a creation might well escape reproach.

CHAPTER III

Spontaneity

54. XVIII, I. Tse-jan

Reasoning on Taoist principles we find that Heaven emits its fluid everywhere. Among the many things of this world grain dispels hunger, and silk and hemp protect from cold. For that reason man eats grain, and wears silk and hemp. That Heaven does not produce grain, silk, and hemp purposely, in order to feed and cloth mankind, follows from the fact that by calamitous changes it does not intend to reprove man. Things are produced spontaneously, and man wears and eats them ; the fluid changes spontaneously, and man is frightened by it, for the usual theory is disheartening. Where would be spontaneity, if the heavenly signs were intentional, and where inaction ? ²

Why must we assume that Heaven acts spontaneously ? Because it has neither mouth nor eyes. Activity is connected with the mouth and the eyes : the mouth wishes to eat, and the eyes to see. These desires within manifest themselves without. That the mouth and the eyes are craving for something, which is considered an advantage, is due to those desires. Now, provided that the mouth and the eye do not affect things, there is nothing which they might long for, why should there be activity then ?

_p1.093 How do we know that Heaven possesses neither mouth nor eyes ? From Earth. The body of the Earth is formed of earth, and earth has neither mouth nor eyes. Heaven and Earth are like husband and wife. Since the body of the Earth is not provided with a mouth or eyes, we know that Heaven has no mouth or eyes neither. Supposing that Heaven has a body, then it must be like that of the Earth, and should it be air only, this air would be like clouds and fog. How can a cloudy or nebular substance have a mouth or an eye ?

Some one might argue that every movement is originally inaction. There is desire provoking the movement, and, as soon as there is motion, there is action. The movements of Heaven are similar to those of man, how could they be inactive ? I reply that, when Heaven moves, it emits its fluid. Its body moves, the fluid comes forth, and things are produced. When man moves his fluid, his body moves, his fluid then comes forth, and a child is produced. Man emitting his fluid does not intend to beget a child, yet the fluid being emitted, the child is born of itself. When Heaven is moving, it does not desire to produce things thereby, but things are produced of their own accord. That is spontaneity. Letting out its fluid it does not desire to create things, but things are created of themselves. That is inaction.

But how is the fluid of Heaven, which we credit with spontaneity and inaction ? It is placid, tranquil, desireless, inactive, and unbusied. Lao Tse acquired long life by it. He obtained it from Heaven. If Heaven did not possess this fluid, how could Lao Tse have obtained this nature ? For it does not happen that the disciples alone speak of something, which their master never mentioned.

Somebody made a reply to Duke Huan ¹, who was wont to say,

— Let Kuan Chung ² know.

His attendants replied,

— Is it so easy to rule, if Kuan Chung is always the first and second word ?

The duke rejoined,

— Before I had secured the services of Kuan Chung, I was in the greatest difficulties, now, after I have got him, I find everything easy.

When Duke Huan had taken Kuan Chung into his service, he left the affairs to him, entrusted him with the administration, and did not trouble any more about it. Should high Heaven, which in its exalted virtue confers the government upon an emperor, reprove man, its virtue would be inferior to that of _p1.094 Duke Huan, and the conduct of a feudatory prince surpass that of great Heaven.

Somebody might object that Duke Huan knew Kuan Chung to be a wise man, and therefore appointed him, and that but for Kuan Chung he would also have given vent to his displeasure. Meeting with men like Yao and Shun Heaven would certainly not have reprimanded people either.

I beg to reply, that, if Heaven can reprimand, it might as well purposely appoint a wise prince, select a genius like Yao and Shun, confer the imperial dignity upon him, and leave the affairs of the empire to him without taking further notice of them. Now it is different. Heaven creates very inferior princes, who have no principles, and neglect virtue, and therefore has to reprove them every now and then. Would it not be afraid of the trouble ?

— I govern it by not governing.

Government by not governing is inaction as a principle.

Some opponent might say that as a sequel of universal peace a plan came forth from the Yellow River, and a scroll from the Lo ⁵. Without drawing no plan can be made, and without action nothing is completed. The fact that Heaven and Earth produced the plan and the scroll shows that they are active, they think. — When Chang Liang was walking on the banks of the river Sse, he met the ‘Yellow Stone Genius’ ¹, who gave him the ‘minister’s book’ ². Heaven was supporting the Han and destroying the Ch‘in, therefore he ordered a spiritual stone to change into a ghost. That a book was handed to somebody is again considered a proof of activity.

I am of opinion that all this was spontaneous, for how could Heaven take a brush and ink, and draw the plan, or write the scroll ? The principle of Heaven is spontaneity, consequently the plan and the book must have been produced of themselves.

T‘ang Shu Yü of Chin ³ and Ch‘êng Chi Yo of Lu ⁴ had a character in their hands, when they were born, therefore one was called Yü, the other Yo. When Chung Tse of Sung ⁵ was born, the characters ‘Duchess of Lu’ were written on her palm. These letters must have been written, while the three persons were still in their mother’s womb. If we say that Heaven wrote them, while they were in their mother’s womb, did Heaven perhaps send a spirit with a style, a brush, and ink to engrave and write the characters _p1.096 on their bodies ? The spontaneity of these processes seems dubious, and is difficult to understand. Externally there seemed to be activity, but as a matter of fact, there was spontaneity internally. Thus the Grand Annalist recording the story of the yellow stone, has his doubts, but cannot find the truth ⁶. Viscount Chien of Chao ⁷ had a dream that he was ascending to heaven. There he saw a lad by the side of the Ruler of Heaven. When he went out subsequently, he perceived a young man in the street, who was the one whom he had seen previously in his dream by the side of the Ruler of Heaven. This must be regarded as a lucky augury the future flourishing of the Chao State, as the transmission of the book by the ‘yellow stone’ was a sign of the rise of the Han dynasty. That the supernatural fluid becomes a ghost, and that the ghost is shaped like a man, is spontaneous, and not the work of anybody. When plants and trees grow, their flowers and leaves are onion green and have crooked and broken veins like ornaments. If Heaven is credited with having written the above mentioned characters, does it make these flowers and leaves also ?

In the State of Sung a man carved a mulberry-leaf of wood, and it took him three years to complete it. Confucius said

— If the Earth required three years to complete one leaf, few plants would have leaves ¹.

According to this dictum of Confucius the leaves of plants grow spontaneously, and for that reason they can grow simultaneously. If Heaven made them, their growth would be as much delayed as the carving of the mulberry-leaf by the man of the Sung State.

Let us look at the hair and feathers of animals and birds, and their various colours. Can they all have been made ? If so, animals and birds would never be quite finished. In spring we see the plants growing, and in autumn we see them full-grown. Can Heaven and Earth have done this, or do things grow spontaneously ? If we may say that Heaven and Earth have done it, they must have used hands for the purpose. Do Heaven and Earth possess many thousand or many ten thousand hands to produce thousands and ten thousands of things at the same time ?