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Table 11 Algae formed zoospores when liquid water or liquid medium was present ______________________________________________________________________ Alga Conditions for zoospore formation Reference Chlorophyceae Gloeocystis sp. When the alga was transformed from a Gerneck 1907 solid substratum to a liquid medium Hormidium When the alga was transferred from a Klebs 1896; nitens, solid substratum to a liquid medium Gerneck 1907 H. flaccidum, or better water Hormidium sp. Pediastrum Resting spores began to form zoospores Ooshima 1974 simplex when inoculated in the fresh Bold’s Basal medium after 2 weeks Planktosphaeria By transferring cells which had been Starr 1954 a gelatinosa growing on agar medium to distilled water after the agar medium had begun to dry
solid substratum to a liquid medium Protosiphon If the water was pour over the alga or Cienkowski 1855; botryoides the alga was flooded (also for gametes) Klebs 1896; Bold 1933; Moewus 1933; Durant et al. 1968 Tetraёdron By transferring cells which had been Starr 1954 b bitridens growing on agar medium to distilled water after the agar medium had begun to dry noticeably
transferred to clean water Klebs 1896 Ophiocytium When the alga was transferred from a Gerneck 1907 sp. solid substratum to a liquid medium or better water
some days were soaked in water or removed from a dilute nutritive solution into pure water The pH of the water Blue- green and green algae assessed reproduced favorably towards alkaline side of the medium (Table 12). The sporulation of Anabaena fertilissima in the range of higher alkalinity was the ecological strategy for the alga to resist the competition offered by Anabaenopsis arnoldii occurring in the same lake (Table 12). Table 12 The pH of the medium optimum for reproduction Alga Structure/ Optimum pH Reference process formed recorded
1987
fertilissima Anabaenopsis Akinete 7.0- 8.5 Reddy 1984 arnoldii Aphanizomenon Akinete 9.33 Rother and Fay flos-aquae 1977; Jones 1979 Nodularia Akinete 8.0 Pandey and spumigena Talpasayi 1980 Westiellopsis Akinete 7.5- 10.5 Agrawal and prolifica Sharma 1994 Chlorophyceae Chlamydomonas Sexual phase 7.5 Karel- Tetik and geitleri Sulek 1987 Closterium Zygospore 7.0- 8.5 Vidyavati and acerosum Nizam 1973 Gonium pectorale Mating, 7.0 Stein 1965 zygote formation Pithophora Akinete 5.0- 9.0 Agrawal and Sarma oedogonia 1983; Chaudhary and Singh 1987 Protosiphon Zoospore, 7.0 Maher 1947 botryoides gamete Rhizoclonium Zoospore 7.5 Gupta and hieroglyphicum formation, Agrawal 2004 b Spirogyra sp. Reproduction 7.0- 9.0 Hoshaw and McCourt 1988 Stigeoclonium Zoospore, 8.0 Agrawal and pascheri akinete Sarma 1982 a, Agrawal 1993 Ulva flexuosa Reproduction 8.2 Mairh et al. 1986 (=Enteromorpha flexuosa) Ulva mutabilis Meiotic 8.0- 8.5 Nordby 1977 Zoospore
________________________________________________________________________ Pollution Pollution of water of any type is detrimental to reproduction of almost all algae assessed (Table 13). Although iron at some low levels was needed for hormogonia formation in Calothrix (Douglas et al. 1986) and akinete formation in Gloeotrichia (Sinclair and whitton 1977) and boron at some low levels for reproduction in Dictyota (Nasr and Bekheet (1970) and Fucus (McLachlan 1977), trace elements and heavy metals (molybdenum, manganese, cobalt, zinc, iron, nickel, copper, boron, lead, mercury) proved to be very toxic and inhibited reproduction in different algae assessed (Table 13). Natural or synthetic antibiotics (actinomycin, rifampicin, amoxicilline, chloramphenicol, nalidixic acid, mitomycin-c, cycloheximide, puromycin, streptomycin, and penicillin); pesticides (carbofuran, gammaxine, iralon, rogor, phorate, DDT, captan, endosulfan, moticop, phosalone); herbicides (2,4-D, butachlor, DCMU, phenylurethane); detergent and surfactant (sodium dodecyl sulfate); an organosulfur compound thiourea; hydrocarbon gases (acetylene, ethylene); mutagen 5- bromouracil; metabolic poison (2,4- dinitrophenol, 2,4- dinitrophenyl hydrazine); carcinogen azaserine; sewage water, fertilizer factory effluent, industrial and municipal effluents (containing different heavy metals, and ammonia, chloride, sulfate, sulfide, etc.); crude oil; benzene; phenol; toluene; all, at different levels were inhibitory to reproduction in different algae assessed (Table 13).
Alga Structure/ Inhibiting substance Reference process inhibited Cyanophyceae Anabaena Akinete Nalidixic acid, hydroxyurea, Fay et al. 1984 circinalis urea, actinomycin, rifampicin, mercaptoethanol, azaserine, casamino acid, trace element mixture (molybdenum, cobalt, boron, zinc, iron)
(0.5- 10 ppm); carbofuran; 2, 4- D; dithane; phorate or bavistin (1- 50 ppm)
caffeine (1 mmol/L) Aphanothece Cell division Sewage water (25- 100 %); Agrawal and pallida fertilizer factory effluent Gupta 2009 and brassica oil (both 1- 100 %); phenol, toluene, benzene (all 25- 100 %)
sp. 1997
muscicola akinete (5, 7.5 mmol/L); caffeine Subbaramaiah (5, 10 mmol/L); lanthanum 1970 acetate (0.7, 1.5 mmol/L); maleic hydrazide (2, 4 mmol/L); coumarin (1.4 mmol/L); thioglycolic acid (1 mmol/L); colchicine (10 mmol/L); uranyl nitrate (0.5, 10 mmol/L) Gloeocapsa Cell division Sewage water (25- 100 %); Agrawal and atrata fertilizer factory effluent Gupta 2009 and brassica oil (both 1- 100 %); phenol, toluene, benzene (all 25- 100 %)
(1 ppm)
muscorum Nostoc PCC Akinete Chloramphenicol Sutherland 7524 (100 ppm), rifampicin et al.1979 (5 ppm), 7- azatryptophan
carbofuran; 2,4-D, dithane, phorate, bavistin (1-50 ppm) Westiellopsis Sporulation Thiourea; sodium Chellappa iyengarii bisulphite; 2,4- et al. 1977 dinitrophenol; 2, 4- dinitrophenyl hydrazine; actinomycin- D; cycloheximide; B- azaguanine Westiellopsis Akinete Boron; cobalt; copper; Agrawal and prolifica zinc; mercury, lead Sharma 1994; (0.5- 10 ppm); Agrawal and carbofuran; 2, 4- D; Misra 2002 dithane; phorate; bavistin (1- 50 ppm)
cycloheximide (0.1 ppm) Chlamydomonas Gametogenesis 3- (3, 4- dichlorophenyl-) - Lorch and eugametos 1, 1- dimethylurea Karlander (DCMU) (6.0 μmol/L) 1973 Chlamydomonas Sexual Phenylurethane Lewin 1956 moewusii differentiation Chlamydomonas Fusion of Phosalone Pednekar reinhardtii gametes et al.1987 Chlamydomonas Gametogenesis, Cycloheximide Ishiura and Iwasa sp. mating 1973 Chlorella Autospore Sewage water (25, 100 %); Agrawal and vulgaris mother cell detergent (0.1- 1 %); Manisha 2007 differentiation phenol, kerosene (5- 20 %); benzene, toluene, phenol (5, 10 %); rogor, endosulfan (1, 10 ppm) Autospore Streptomycin, penicillin, mother cell amoxicillin dehiscence (10- 1000 ppm); tetracycline (10, 100 ppm); carbofuran, gammaxine, moticop, iralon (1- 100 ppm)
carbofuran; 2, 4- D; dithane; phorate; bavistin (1- 50 ppm)
ppm); carbofuran; dithane; Agrawal and 2, 4- D; phorate; bavistin Misra 2002 (1- 50 ppm) Rhizoclonium Zoosporangium Cobalt, copper, zinc, lead, Agrawal and hieroglyphicum formation and mercury (0.5- 10 ppm); Misra 2002; dehiscence, carbofuran; 2, 4- D; phorate; Gupta and zoospore dithane; bavistin (1- 50 ppm); Agrawal 2004 b formation thiourea (100, 200 ppm); DDT (200- 600 ppm); captan (200 ppm) Stigeoclonium Akinete Streptomycin (12.5- 200 ppm), Agrawal and pascheri penicillin (500- 4000 ppm), Sarma 1980; chloramphenicol (12.5- 200 Agrawal and ppm), boron (5, 10 fold level Sarma 1982 b; of basal medium), caffeine Agrawal 1985 pretreatment (500- 2000 ppm)
copper, zinc, lead), sodium dodecyl sulfate
division Rhodophyceae Champia Spermatia Municipal and industrial Thursby parvula formation effluents et al.1985 Jania rubens Spore Industrial wastes Murthy and liberation Rao 2003 Gracilaria Spore Crude oil (0.1- 10 ppm) Premila and corticata liberation Rao 1997 Industrial wastes Murthy and Rao 2003
valentiae liberation Rao 1997 Industrial wastes Murthy and Rao 2003
Phaeophyceae Dictyota Spore Crude oil (0.1- 10 ppm) Premila and dichotoma liberation Rao 1997 Lessonia Spore Copper (7.87 μg/ L) Contreras nigrescens release et al. 2007 Padina Spore Crude oil (0.1- 10 ppm) Premila and antillarum liberation Rao 1997 (=P. tetrastro- matica) Industrial wastes Murthy and Rao 2003
UV- B/ UV- C light were inhibitory to algal reproduction (Table 14). Table 14 UV light proved inhibitory to algal reproduction Alga Structure/ Agents Reference process inhibited
cell
spinulosum 1971 Hydrodictyon Daughter net UV- C of any dose Agrawal and Pal reticulatum (0.96- 1.92 kJ/ m2) 2003 Oedogonium Reproduction UV- C Parker and Horsley cardiacum 1972 Oedogonium Oogonium UV- C of any dose Agrawal and Pal sp. (0.96- 1.92 kJ/ m2) 2003 Pithophora Akinete UV- C of any dose Agrawal and Singh oedogonia (0.96- 7.68 kJ/ m2) 2000 Rhizoclonium Zoosporangium UV- C of any dose Gupta and Agrawal hieroglyphicum dehiscence ( 0.96- 1.92 kJ/ m2) 2004 b Stigeoclonium Akinete UV- C of any dose Sarma and Agrawal pascheri (1.92- 7.68 kJ/ m2) 1980 a, b Ulva pertusa Sporulation UV- B Han et al. 2003 (0.085 kJ/ m2 for 50 % inhibition)
Crump 1979; Baren and Huskey 1986
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