ANNEX 3: ENDORSEMENTS  
Annex 4: Site selection, description and action plan development
Site selection process
This project concentrates its activities in a series of critical but representative Paramo sites, in four countries and includes two trans-boundary sites. These Project Intervention Sites (PIS) were selected during the PDF-B phase in a process with international, national and local stakeholders, including the focal points.
The selection process was carried out in by local (farmer) organizations and NGOs as well as with national and regional institutions, coordinated by the National Executing Agency. First, at national level a short list of critical Paramo areas was selected by the national executing agency in coordination with the GEF focal point and with the other country members of the coordination committee of the PDF-B to assure an international adjustment among sites. The project developed a short list of approximately 20 sites that were visited and local organizations contacted. Together with international, national and local stakeholders, a final selection was undertaken in order to maintain a maximum of ten sites. To assure the selection of an illustrative set of sites that represent the biological and cultural diversity and the diversity in conservation status of the Paramos in the Andes and for assuring the opportunity of replication of the results to other Paramo areas, the following criteria were used and weighted:
Biological diversity (richness, uniqueness) -
General geographical and biological importance
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Conservation status
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Socioeconomic y cultural diversity
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Extension of Paramo area within site
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Cultural significance
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Land tenure situation
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Threats on biodiversity and ecosystem integrity
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Source of important water resources (drinking water, irrigation, major watersheds)
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Relationship with protected areas
To assure an effective implementation of the project, the following additional criteria were applied
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Availability of information
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Accessibility
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Organizational basis for project implementation
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Institutional basis for project implementation
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Presence of strategic projects for collaboration
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General feasibility (political situation, social instability, safety)
The selection process resulted in nine PIS, two of which were deliberately selected in trans-boundary areas within the designated Frontier Integration Zones (Zonas de Integración Fronteriza, ZIF): Loja-Piura (Peru-Ecuador) and Chiles (Ecuador-Colombia)26. Other sites are: Tuñame and Gavidia (Venezuela), Rabanal and Belmira (Colombia), Zuleta-Mojanda and LLangahua (Ecuador) and Cajamarca (Perú). A pristine area in Colombia (El Duende) will be included as a reference site for research and comparison. Normally, the sites included or limited to a protected area of different category (national park, ecological reserve, forest reserve, indigenous reserve, etc.)
All the PIS together contain most major ecological formations, cultural diversity and threats to Paramo integrity. A second immediate objective of the project is the replication of the lessons from these sites to other sites (outscaling) and levels (upscaling). Herewith, the replication approach is transversally and vertically included in the project. Outscaling and upscaling will be governed by formal and informal replication mechanisms. First, stakeholders from other Paramo sites (farmers, local NGOs) and from other levels (provincial governments, national NGOs) will be directly involved with the training and environmental education program at the PIS to allow for major participation and interchange of experiences. With these stakeholders, an informal relationship will be established, to support them to implement lessons from this project at their sites and levels. Formal replication mechanisms exist of collaboration agreements with other projects, other sectors and, especially, national and international governmental agencies to support the inclusion of lessons at the PIS in international and national multi sectoral policies. Finally, the Paramo Information Mechanism (PIM) that the project will develop allows for broad involvement of different stakeholders and informal exchange of best lessons.
Stakeholder participation and action plan development.
Upon site selection, local stekeholders were invited to work in a local alliance to elaborate a Plan of Action for on-site activities in a participatory way. First, an NGO and/or a local governmental agency with local activities in environmental themes was invited to coordinate the process (site coordinators). One or two farmer communities that possess larger amounts of Paramo within the areas (typically between 100 and 1000 has; including farming area and relatively conserved area) were selected and invited to act as main beneficiaries of the on-site process. Finally other NGOs and GOs at local and regional level and (in some cases) production groups or private companies were included in the alliance to support the Plan of Action development.
During the site intervention process in PDF-B, a fully participatory approach was followed, through which an Action Plan was developed based on the present knowledge and necessities of local farmer communities, NGOs, local governments and other stakeholders. Herewith, the local institutional basis for Paramo conservation was reaffirmed.
This local process first provided a joint characterization of stakeholders and the formation of strategic alliances. Together with them, a common vision was developed. This common vision responded to questions such as: What is our goal? What do we want to do? How will we do this? and, What is our general philosophy? After this, a general description of the area was made by inhabitants supported by the site coordination and NEA. This description serves as baseline assessment at site level. The information collected during this characterization was:
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Geographical information on the site and/or community (name, formal status, geographic position, area)
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Population information (history, ethnics, important facts and dates, # population, distribution of population, work, income, housing, schooling, roads)
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Paramo Resources (flora, fauna, crops, pastures, water, soils, climate surface area, conflicts)
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General land use and land tenure (present activities, potential activities, land tenure, access rights, problems, conflicts, possible solutions)
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Use of water (type -consumption, irrigation, electricity-, participants, organization, distribution, rights/conflicts)
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Crops and Livestock (type, intensity, trends, profit)
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Use of biodiversity ((type, intensity, trends, profit)
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Other uses (forestry, mining, tourism)
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Social organization (internal organization, political organization)
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External organizations and projects present in area (including investments)
After this, an Action Plan was developed in a series of meetings with all stakeholders. The Action Plan contains:
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Main problems, and their associated threats and opportunities
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General objectives of the action plan
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Project goals (outcomes or specific objectives)
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Strategies to obtain goals
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Activities pertaining to strategies
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Responsible organization(s)
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Estimated time of execution
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Estimated budget
Short Site description:
Tuñame (Venezuela)
The Paramo of Pajarito-Arenales (2526 ha) is located in Sierra de Trujillo, in the Parish of Tuñame of the Municipality of Urdaneta (State Trujillo). The area borders the “Teta of Niquitao” and “Guirigay” National Monuments and “Sierra de la Culata” National Park. The Paramo occupies the higher part of the watershed of Quebrada de Tuñame. The elevations are between 2900 and 3820 m. It is a relatively dry area (approx. 760 mm). Water drains partly through Pueblo Llano and the Boconó River towards the Orinoco Plains and through the Tuñame and the Motatán River towards the Lake Maracaibo watershed. Most of the soils in the area are inceptisols with an organic horizon with depths between 20 and 60 cm. There are diverse vegetation formations, including some of the most characteristic of the Andean Paramo in Venezuela (3000-4000 m) such as the open rosette vegetation, rosettes and shrubs and tall shrubs in the lower areas. The total number of species of vascular plants identified in the area so far is 124, which represents 5% of the flora of the Paramos of Venezuela. In the area there are numerous wetland areas, strategic environments for the storage and regulation of hydrologic dynamics, with characteristic plant diversity and important as forage for livestock in most of these areas.
The agriculture in the area presents different grades of intensity and goes from an intensive system with irrigation to a system with 3 year-old fallow periods or more. The area can be divided into three areas according to their height and the accessibility to water sources: the low area (approximately 2900-3300 m) with irrigation and intensive agriculture with 2-3 harvest per year; the middle area (3150-3300 m) with little irrigation and a single crop per year, and the high areas (3300-3600 m) where estates are larger and the agriculture is practiced with fallow periods. The main crop is potato, rotated with carrot in irrigated places. The cultivation of garlic was introduced about 5 years ago by external producers, but nowadays it is not sown in large extensions due to fungal problems. Cattle raising seems to have been a very important activity in the area until recent times. Due to the change in land use in the high areas and the drainage of swamps, the number of animals seems to have diminished recently. Cop marketing presents a problem for small producers since middlepersons do not arrive to their property and they have to take it to urban centers (e.g. Valera) paying the freight.
The community in the area has a low population density and is dispersed. The total population is 975 inhabitants, 53% are 20 or younger, only 5% are senior citizens. Fifty seven percent of the population has basic education; the index of literacy is 81%. Forty percent is devoted to the main economic activity, i.e. agriculture. In the area there are 209 housings and only 48% of these are in good physical condition. The main road for the population of Tuñame is the Trasandina Highway.
Gavidia (Venezuela)
The Paramo of Gavidia (6030 ha) is located in the Sierra Nevada de Mérida, in the Municipality of Rangel of the State of Mérida. The area lies within the Sierra Nevada National Park and has been classified as “area of autochthonous population use.” The community of Gavidia is a rural establishment in which three main sectors are located: Gavidia, Micarache and Las Piñuelas. It is made up of two large glacier valleys and several lateral hanging valleys between 3200 m and 4300 m. The mean annual rainfall is moderate (approx. 1320 mm). The water courses originate in numerous marshy and swampy areas. In the high areas there are more than 12 lakes that cover a total surface of 57 ha. The area drains through the Quebrada de Gavidia towards the Chamá River, part of the Maracaibo lake watershed. The soils studied are inceptisols (Ustic Humiptropet) with an organic horizon that reaches 50 cm of depth. The Paramo of Gavidia presents a great diversity of vegetation formations, including some of the most characteristic of the Andean Paramo in Venezuela (3000-4000 m; rosettes-tussocks, rosettes-shrubs and tall shrubs). The total number of vascular plants identified so far is about 210 species, which represent 10% of the flora of the Paramos of Venezuela. As for fauna, local people recognize 11 species of mammals, several of them in a vulnerable state or in danger, such as cougar and limpet (Agouti taczanowskii).
The agricultural system of the area is a system of long fallow periods for the cultivation of commercial potato, closely tied to a system of extensive cattle raising. The agricultural area covers 18% of the total surface (6030 ha). The parcels after potato cultivation are also used for shepherding and for firewood extraction. Recently, the system has been suffering a series of transformation tendencies towards intensification, with a reduction or elimination of fallow times, the installation of an n irrigation system that serves the lower areas of the valley of Piñuelas and the introduction of crops such as carrots and garlic. In the extensive cattle raising system in the area, most of the animals are left in the Paramos out of the cultivation area and the breeding cows are brought down to the housing area for milking. The bovine load in the agricultural belt is approximately 0.13 heads for hectare. The system with long fallow periods allows the maintenance of a high space diversity at a landscape scale, but a reduction of the times of fallow and an expansion of the agricultural frontier could have negative effects on the maintenance of the diversity of the vegetation of the Paramos.
The community in study is characterized by a low population density. The total population is 360 inhabitants most of them of school age (40% < 14 years). Fifty five percent of the population has primary education and the index of literacy is 84%. In the study area, there are 69 housings, 70% in regular to bad condition. The index of accumulation is high (63%). The main access road to the town of Gavidia is an asphalted road asphalted in good condition that connects to the Trasandina highway.
Rabanal (Colombia)
The Rabanal Massif has an approximate area of 17.567 ha and is located in areas surrounding the cundiboyacense highlands in the municipalities of Guachetá, Lenguazaque and Villa Pinzón in the department of Cundinamarca, and Ventaquemada, Samacá and Ráquira in the department of Boyacá. The waters generated are part of the basins of the Magdalena and Orinoco rivers through the Garagoa river, which provides water to La Esmeralda reservoir of the Chivor Hydroelectric Power station (one of the main producers of local electric power), and the basins that feed the Fúquene lake. This Paramo also supplies water to the Teatinos reservoir that provides water to the aqueduct of Tunja (a city of 130.000 inhabitants) and 50.000 people in other municipalities. Rabanal produces water for the Gachaneca I and II reservoirs, which irrigate more than 1'000.000 ha of this region, as well as for 92 local aqueducts. In the Paramo of Rabanal, natural high Andean ecosystems still persist: frailejonales (Espeletia Paramo), peat wetlands and high grasslands. The compositional changes can be evidenced by the presence of numerous fragments of secondary formations, with the presence of islands or fragments of more mature formations. Most of their current biodiversity (Paramo and subParamo vegetation), lingers in a few areas surrounded by grasses, with a landscape made up of vegetation formations with a prevalence of secondary dynamics, with multiple patches of different ages and different transformation types (burning, slash, cultivation, grasses, shepherding, among others). Forty seven wetlands have been identified in the area of influence (ca. 1.400 ha) including peat-bogs, swamps and lakes, and reservoirs. There is also a significant quantity of desiccated wetlands (7% of the total). They were dried up mostly for agricultural and intensive potato cultivation. The present forests show a prevalence of secondary formations (stubbles) with encenillales (Weinmaniatum), gacales (Clusietum) and oak groves (Quercetum). The fauna is scarce apparently due to intense and frequent hunting in the whole region, although there are evidences of curíes (Cavia porcellus), possibly armadillos (Dasypus novemcintus), Guaches (Nassuella olivacea) or Faras (Didelphus albiventris), rabbits (Silvilagus brasiliensis), squirrels (Sciurus granatensis), some mice, shrews and hawks (Falconiformes) and eagles (Geranoaetus melanoleucus meridensis) as the most remarkable fauna.
The population of the region of Paramo de Rabanal is mainly rural, and inhabits primarily lower altitude areas but possesses also Paramo lands, dedicating these estates to agriculture and the almost exclusive cultivation of potato, rotating this crop with grasses. In the region, made up by five municipalities, there are 61.397 people and the population inhabiting the veredas that are directly inside the area of environmental management is 10.304 people, of which less than 500 live directly in the Paramo. In the massif, there are activities related to coal mining, mainly extraction and coking, activities that link this area to an increasingly growing population nucleus. The main problem identified by the inhabitants of the region is the water-related conflicts, mainly in the northern and western sub-humid slopes of the massif. As a result of the conflicting conditions of water management that comes from the massif, an inadequate use of the water has developed in its entire periphery. The coke production in the Paramo of Rabanal is one of the highest-impact activities on natural resources, mainly on water. There are no environmental plans at mining level. 3.500 to 5.000 ha of the Paramo de Rabanal have been intervened with potato cultivations, and 6000 to 9000 ha have cattle-related activities including bovines for meat and milk) and sheep in a smaller proportion. One of the main impacts on the area is fire. There are 4000 ha of reforestation with Pinus patula in different areas of Paramo, such as the Gachaneca I and II reservoirs. In the forest remnants of Paramo de Rabanal, there are also human activities that generate an impact on the natural environment, among them livestock shepherding inside the forests, expansion to the forest of potato cultivation, elaboration of coal from oak wood and the extraction of posts for fences. The Paramo de Rabanal is altered by the construction of roads and other infrastructural development, promoted by Municipal Governments and private owners.
Within Rabanal lies the Robledal Forest Preserve with 400 hectares between the municipalities of Ráquira and Guachetá, close to the Lake of Fúquene. On the southwest side of the Rabanal massif lies the forest preserve Paramo of Rabanal (2.681 have).
Belmira (Colombia)
The System of High Andean Paramos and Forests of Middle Northwestern Antioquia is located on a high plateau of the Colombian central mountain range, with a maximum height of 3.350 and a minimum one of 2.400 m, 70 km. north of Medellín, capital of the Department of Antioquia. The area of Belmira (19.630 ha) mainly occupies part of the municipalities of Belmira and San José de la Montaña, and also part of Entrerríos, San Pedro de los Milagros and San Andrés de Cuerquia, mainly in the area of the northern Antioquia Highland, and small areas of the municipalities of Sabanalarga, Liborina, Olaya, San Jerónimo and Sopetrán, the latter in the Cauca river canyon, in the western area of the System. It conserves plant populations and representative animals of high mountain ecosystems, important from an environmental-offer point of view, for the area contains a dense hydrological net born in the local Paramos and forests, which functions regulating rain water and receiving the humid fronts, common in the Andean ecosystems, and providing water for basic necessities of approximately 64.000 inhabitants of the urban and rural areas of 11 municipalities, located in the north highland and in the area of West on the canyon of the river Cauca, and a population of 980.000 of the Metropolitan Area of the Valley of Aburrá, connected to the multiple-use system of Río Grande ll, that also uses water for hydropower in Tasajeras and Niquía, generating 3% of the local energy. From a productive point of view, the area supplies water to large extensions dedicated to milk cattle raising in the area of the north highland of Antioquia and to the coffee and agricultural system of the oriental hillside of the Cauca canyon.
In general, the economy in the area is based on dairy production in the highland and interior valleys of the system and, in a smaller scale, on pork and trout. In the western flank, on the river Cauca basin’s nearby areas, the economy is based on dairy production in the high parts and coffee in the middle area. There are also small staple cultivations and extensive marginal cattle raising. According to 2002 annual statistics, the percentage of unsatisfied basic necessities for the area that covers ten municipalities is 32%, which denotes low habitation quality, low coverage of sanitary services, especially sewer systems, and little access to road infrastructure and services. The education level is low, with high-school levels with agricultural and teaching emphasis in the urban nuclei of the ten municipalities, in three corregimientos of six and one in a vereda of 42, which are inside the area of influence of the system. The residents of the area of the northern highland come mainly from the West and the Southwest of Antioquia, and the Valley of Aburrá, who, attracted by the current gold rush in the region, settled in the area, establishing a conjugation of different cultures, including Afro-American communities, characterized by the conformation of a nuclear rooted family, typical of the Andean area.
In 1998, the Regional Autonomous Corporation of the Center of Antioquia, CORANTIOQUIA, defined and zoned an area of 34.358,74 hectares in the Systems of Paramos and High Andean Forests of the Middle Northwest of Antioquia, aiming at declaring it a Protected Area, but to date the administrative act of declaration has not been signed declaring it a District of Integrated Management (DMI), and Management Plan has been formulated to plan and regulate the use and management of natural resources and the economic, educational, scientific and recreational activities that are developed as a conservation strategy.
Chiles (Colombia-Ecuador)
The Paramos around the Chiles volcano on the Colombia-Ecuador border (ca. 15500 ha) connect the Chiles indigenous territory (Colombia) and the El Angel Ecological Reserve (Ecuador). It is the southernmost extension of Paramos where giant rosettes of the genus Espeletia dominate the vegetation structure. The area is relatively wet (1000 mm) and has deep soils of volcanic origin (organic layer up to 150 cm). This Paramo area supplies water to one of the most intensive potato growing areas in the Northern Andes (Carchi-Nariño) and to watersheds that drain towards the Amazon Basin (via the Putumayo river and the Carchi and Guaitara rivers). The area is currently suffering from the side effects of the armed conflict in Colombia (migrations, illicit crops, large military presence). The project developed two Action Plans in this area, one at the Colombian side (Chiles territory) and one at the Ecuadorian side (Comuna La Esperanza).
The Colombian portion of the Paramo de Chiles is located in the South of the Department of Nariño, Municipality of Cumbal, Indigenous Territory of Chiles. It covers an extension of 5.626 ha, between 3200 and 4748 m. There are different vegetation types such as Polylepis forests with trees up to 15 meters, Miconia, Hedyosmum etc., scrub with shrubby vegetation of up to 5 m, mainly of Asteraceae; grasslands with herbaceous vegetation of macollas of Poaceae; Frailejonales with Espeletia pycnophylla, Puya clava-hercules and Blechnum loxense; Grasslands and peat-bogs with herbaceous strata and crawlers, and cushions and pads. In total 176 vascular plants have been registered, distributed in 56 families and 110 gerera. Five Subfamilies of butterflies were identified, 115 species of birds contained in 42 families and 81 genera; Lizards of the genus Stenocercus; Frogs of the genera Eleutherodactylus and Osornophryne; and two species of bats, Anora goeffroyi and Histiotus montanus. The soils in the Paramo of Chiles are of volcanic origin, formed by pyroclastic material of the volcanoes Chiles, Cumbal and Azufral. In the Paramo of Chiles three watersheds are born: Chiles or Germagan, Capot and Játiva. There are several lakes and thermal waters. The natural water currents have suffered deep human alterations due to the construction of channels and drainage systems for irrigation and water troughs. The domestic use for laundry, motorcycle, cars washing and fumigation pumps is contaminating the water sources with detergents, oils, and agrochemicals. The agrochemical abuse has generated water pollution processes especially in the lands close to ravines.
Human activities threatening the integrity of this ecosystem are deforestation of 8 ha/year, burning (10 ha/year) and others impossible to quantify such as livestock shepherding, grass extraction and wetland drainages, and the road construction that can produce in the future a larger occupation of these areas. It is important to highlight that small patches and forest remnants were observed amid the Paramo and bordering running water bodies, from 3.600 to 3.900 m, which make up a habitat net that makes possible the establishment of a great variety of plant and animal species that contribute to maintain the ecological balance of the area. The forest areas and Paramos of the Chiles volcano have been classified as places of critical priority for the conservation of the Southeast of Nariño. This priority is based on biological importance, vulnerability and integrity criteria, with the purpose of maintaining the multiple interrelations that allow this ecosystem to maintain its dynamic equilibrium.
The indigenous community of Chiles is formed by 888 families. The town council is the highest authority in the community. In the Territory of Chiles there are five Communal Action Boards in each vereda. The Territory has four educational nuclei. There is also the Nuestro Senior del Río High School in Chiles, which offers all the levels of pre-school, primary and secondary education. The vereda schools and the high school are directed by teachers belonging to the Territory who are knowledgeable about their traditions; therefore the education children receive theoretical/practical. It is important to mention that in relation to School Environmental Projects (PRAES), CORPONARIÑO implemented workshops related especially to environmental education guidelines. The housing in the area has evolved from the bahareque adobe type and today the brick type is dominant. Equally, roofs have been modified and in some cases concrete has been used. There are two types of land property: private (40%) and community (60%). Fifty percent of the families possess properties smaller than one hectare and only 3% have 32 properties larger than five hectares. The economy of the Indigenous Territory is based on agricultural activities and, in a smaller scale, commercial, handcrafts and tourism activities. According to the Agricultural Census of Chiles 2004, the area fit for agricultural activity is of 1232 ha, 1024 ha dedicated to grasses for the production of milk and 208 ha dedicated to agriculture, of which 80% correspond to potato cultivation and 20% to other crops such as beans, onions and ulloco (an Andean tuber).
The Ecuadorian portion of the Paramo of Chiles (9900 ha) limits with the Colombian border in the north, the El Angel Ecological Reserve in the south and with Golondrina Protected Forest in the West, between 3.000 to 4.723 meters. The waters in the area drain to the Pacific (through the San Juan and Mira Rivers) and to the Amazonía (Carchi River). The mean annual rainfall varies considerably in this area from approximately 1.000 mm in the sector of Tufiño to more than 1.750 mm in the surroundings of the volcano Chiles. The soils have developed on volcanic deposits of the Quaternary, formed by acid lavas of the andesite type, basalts and mainly of ashes, product of the activity of the Chiles volcano. In the area big there are large extensions of wetlands (lakes and peat-bogs besides typical vegetation of Paramo (rosettes -grasslands) and superParamo.
Comuna La Esperanza is a community of approximately 1.300 people, belonging to the Quillasingas and Pastos cultures that have lost their identity via transculturization processes. This human group is made up of around 260 families. They occupy individual houses built with adobe in association with fibrous wooden natural materials. These groups are distributed forming small towns located along the road, coordinated by a central head that in Tufiño, where all the planning is made for the Community and where the Central Board is located. The comuna settled here some three hundred years ago, in the beginning as a town council of the Gran Colombia, where lands were managed in combination by people from Ecuador and Colombia. After the national boundary was established, the Comuna was founded in the Ecuadorian side. The literacy rates are moderate; approximately 80% of the population has basic notions of reading and writing. Most of the revenues come from the sales of agricultural and forest products. People obtain economic revenues outside of the commune for manpower, consequently migration is very high, being woman the ones that emigrate most. Most of the communities that belong to the Comuna lack sanitary services and waste-elimination facilities. The water for human consumption is not treated. Transport inside of and toward the area is done through a third-order road that unites the province-capital city of Tulcán with the parishes of Tufiño and Maldonado, of approximately 92 km. This road crosses from East to West to the Center of the communal area, dividing it in two parts. One of the communities, Chilmá Bajo, is connected with the main road through a branch; the other ones do it through paths or horse roads.
There are six main types of land uses: cultivation, grasses, Paramo, natural forest, areas without vegetation cover and town centers. Traditional crops are potatoes, beans, ocas and mellocos (Andean tubers), in the mountain; banana, manioc, corn and a variety of tropical fruits and grasses in the subtropical slopes. 9.891 hectares that represent 21.9% of the total area are dedicated at the moment to agriculture.
Zuleta-Mojanda (Ecuador)
This site comprises two independent but closely located Paramos: Zuleta and Mojanda. Although their biophysical and socioeconomic realities are partly shared and partly independent, it is possible to treat them as one site for the purposes of this project.
This area comprises approximately 29000 ha. between the Pichincha and Imbabura provinces in Ecuador. It limits with the Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve in the East. The Mojanda lakes area was declared as a bi-municipal conservation area but does not have a legal status as such, thus the two municipalities involved have “twin” legislations. It is an area representative for the majority of Paramos in North and Central Ecuador, where tussock grasses dominate the landscape, intermingled with small peat lands, lakes and forest remnants. Indeed, some scattered Polylepis and mixed high Andean forest can be found in this landscape. The dominance of the relatively homogeneous tussock grass Paramo is probably associated with repeated burning and extensive livestock grazing all over the area. The population in this region is mixed between Quichua speaking indigenous people and mestizos. In general, they are well organized in communities and higher-level organizations. The project developed two Action Plans in this area in different social conditions: one around the Lake of Mojanda and one the Paramos of the Zuleta hacienda and community.
The place called Cerro de Mojanda (25000 ha) is located in the provinces of Pichincha and Imbabura, shared by the municipalities of Pedro Moncayo, Otavalo and Quito. In 2001, the Municipalities of Otavalo and Pedro Moncayo subscribed an agreement for the management of Mojanda that creates a protected area starting at 3000 m to the highest point located to 4260 m in mount Fuyafuya. The protected area has an extension of 25.000 approximately. Mojanda was formed by the eruptions of the old volcano Mojanda, the crater of which has a diameter of approximately 4.5 kilometers. In the crater there are three main lakes and a fourth smaller one. The humid montane forest is between 3000 and 3400 m, with temperatures averaging annually between 8 and 12°C, and rainfall averaging annually between 500 and 1000 mm. The soils are Mollisoles. The native vegetation is characterized by arboreal vegetation, including species such as Yagual, Pumamaqui, Quishuar, Colca, Chachacomo and Piquil. Most of the forest has been transformed into cultivation fields of potatoes, beans, barley, quinua and ocas. Pine plantations also exist (Pinus radiata). This belt is the propriety of communities and large landowners. The Very humid montane forest registers annual mean precipitations of 1000 mm, where, besides the aforementioned species, there are Sachacapulí, Matache, Pigüe an Arrayán. In this ecosystem the soil type is Duripan. The Andean forest remnants border the agricultural and cattle-raising areas and the Paramo. The Paramo ecosystem begins at 3.500 m. The mean annual temperature of the Paramo in Mojanda goes from 3 to 6°C, with a mean annual rainfall of 1.000 mm. The soils of the Paramo are Dystrandepts. This ecosystem is dominated by gramineous vegetation of the genera Festuca, Calamagrostis and Stipa, and shrubs, and in the forest remnants there are species like pumamaqui, piquil, quisuar, and yagual. The highest areas of the Mojanda have been used for livestock shepherding and cultivation. The lake system of Mojanda and other slopes are the only source of water for human consumption for the whole municipality of Pedro Moncayo and three parishes of Otavalo. The population that benefits from this water reaches a total of 36000 inhabitants.
In relation to the conservation status of the lake system, there has been a decrease of the water mirror of the big lake due to direct use through the installation of a valve that captures a larger flow than the one feeding the lake; there is also contamination of the lakes and the slopes due to livestock shepherding. This area is affected by agricultural, coal miming and unchecked tourist activities. If appropriate measures are not taken, the destruction of this ecosystem will get worsened in the short term, affecting directly a considerable population in the two municipalities and the country’s natural heritage.
The Area of Mojanda is inhabited by diverse peoples: Otavalos, Cayambis and Cochasquis, and a mestizo population. In total, there are 26 communities with a total population of 11.000. The traditional productive activities are agriculture and cattle raising. Even though flower production in Pedro Moncayo is done below 3000 m, its influence is enormous in the area. In Otavalo community property is predominant under traditional agricultural practices, but crops such as have intensified lately. In the high part of the Paramos, both in Pedro Moncayo and Otavalo, bull-fighting cattle are maintained. For their landscape qualities and the easy access, this is a place visited by many tourists, a fact associated to the characteristics of Otavalo. Several educational centers are located in diverse communities of the two municipalities. Health centers are located in the municipal and parochial heads. The road infrastructure is: a paved road that goes from Otavalo to the big lake (21 km); a third-order road that goes from Tabacundo to the Black lake (14 km); and a fourth-order road that goes from Malchinguí to the Chiriacu lake.
The total surface of the area of Paramo of Zuleta is 4770 ha. It lies in the Ecuadorian Oriental mountain range, in the Angochagua parish of the municipality of Ibarra, in the province of Imbabura. The Paramos of Zuleta limit to the East with the Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve. The area was declared as Protected Forest and Vegetation “Zuleta y Anexos Co. Ltda. and community of Zuleta” in 1995. The landscape is highly undulated with slopes over 50%. The soils are of young to very young volcanic origin, of the dystrandepts type. The area is located in the Santiago-Mira Hydrographic System, the Río Mira basin, the Chota watershed, and the micro-watershed Tahuando, ravines San Pedro, San Leonidas; Santa Isabel, Santa Martha and Yanajaca. The mean annual rainfall is 1.500 mm. The area presents the typical type of vegetation of Paramo grassland, with a dominance of Calamagrostis effusa, grasses and shrubs. There are a few forest fragments in the area. The community has identified 19 species of useful trees and 26 species of frequently-used medicinal herbs. In a participatory diagnosis workshop, the community also identified 24 birds and 25 mammals, 3 fish, 4 amphibians, 3 reptiles and 14 invertebrates.
After the Spanish conquest, the lands that at the moment correspond to Hacienda Zuleta (now a private company) and the community of Zuleta were given to the Jesuits by the Spanish crown. They introduced Spanish agricultural and livestock techniques, and later they established looms and sawmills. At the moment, the lands in the lower area and the hillsides are property of the company Zuleta and Annexes and the community of Zuleta, and the vast majority of Paramos is communal property. Inside the aforementioned area, there are 329 families with a total of 1037 inhabitants. Until the 80’s the local economy was stable, until, little by little, it became a “survival” one due to the impressive and uncontrollable monetary devaluation and monstrous speculation that had an accelerated growth from 1981 up to the 2000’s. At the moment most of the population lives below the poverty limit. Currently, there is medical attention at the Health Sub-center regulated by the Imbabura Health Headquarters. At the moment, in the community there is education at the three levels: Pre-primary, primary and secondary (Agricultural Technical High School).
Among the main problems that have been determined is the scarcity of water due to low flows, thus it is urgent to develop prevention and control measures of Paramo burning and tree slashing, improve agricultural technification, curve the environmental impact of the electric interconnected system Pasto-Quito that crosses the Paramo, control the introduction of cow and horses to prevent the erosion and laterization of the Paramo vegetation layer, and promote fulfillment of agreements by water management authorities and institutions.
Llangahua (Ecuador)
The highlands of Llangahua in the province of Tungurahua, to the west of the city of Ambato, contain almost 5000 ha of Paramo located between 3800 and 4400 m. The precipitation is low; around about 600 mm yearly. There a great number of water sources originate, that have bee used to provide drinking and irrigation water to the communities of the area, as well as to feed the flow of the main rivers that allow the irrigation of the lower areas through small canals and, at the same time, to supply drinking water to the city of Ambato (ca. 250,000 inhabitants). The Ambato river is a tributary of the Pastaza river (Amazon basin). The mean annual temperature averages yearly around 6°C with frequent frosts (nights with temperature blow 0°C) during the months of October to December and April. The low part of the Paramos of Llangahua possesses deep black Andean soils in the category inceptisoles. The Paramo suffers from a great impact due to overgrazing, and many areas are degraded and desertified. However, there remains the typical Paramo (pajonal) with useful species such as the sunfíllo (Satureja nubigena), cunucchaqui (Lachemilla orbiculata) and taruga cacho and fragments of small yagual (Polylepis spp.) and piquil (Gynoxys sp.) forests that harbor líchens, fungi and climbers. Within the degraded landscape, the Paramo possesses wetlands at the bottom of its extensive glacial valleys in which large cushion-forming plants dominate, especially of Azorella pedunculata and Plantago rigida, which form a layer of humid and spongy matter that turns into peat, thus assuring the storage and generation of water. In some sectors the Paramo is more humid as in Escaleras and Verdepungo, with higher plant diversity and a continuous vegetation cover; therefore, one can find there more water sources. The humid part of the Paramo covers 2000 ha. The Paramos of Llangahua, jointly with those of Calamaca, are important areas of special protection since in them there are the last relicts of native forest in the Ambato area, and they have a large number of high Andean wetlands which are the source of water that feeds the river.
Of all the places of the project, this seems to be the most degraded. It has a long history of use with much human presence and good accessibility (the access roads cross the area with 45 asphalted and ballasted kilometers). The infantile population is served by 3 primary schools located in the three sectors: Loma Gorda, Escaleras and El Salado, with a total of 17 teachers. Also, the Pastaza river area has one school with 43 students and 2 teachers. Unfortunately, there is no health service according to the population number; For the Salado sector there is one health center of Peasant Social Security in agreement with the Indigenous Department of Health.
The communities have a permanent service of irrigation due to their location and environmental conditions, an aspect that can foster a better cultivation planning, including its diversification. The development of agricultural activities generates the main income for the population. However, subsistence agriculture is not very productive due to faulty technical support and to a very low production diversification. In some communities, Paramo land is still used communally, a fact that has fostered conservation of these sites, although there is currently a lot of pressure to divide it into plots for each family.
At the moment, the five localities with which the Project will work belong to the Llangahua Central Agricultural Cooperative, which in turn belongs to Cristóbal Pajuña Corporation of Organizations (a second-grade organization). The history of occupation of these lands goes back to the Spanish conquest and the colonial tines, starting in 1534. This process forced the native inhabitants to flee to the Paramos. When the peasants established a cooperative, they could buy properties at a preferential price according to the politics of distribution of Paramo lands for the benefit of all; nowadays the Paramo is used as natural grassland for bull-fighting cattle (mainly), sheep and horses. The families of the communities cultivate grasses, potatoes, beans, garlic and maintain natural grassland. In spite of some technical support, skilled labor and resources from the external institutions, deficiencies exist still in the planning of management activities. Therefore, the different predominant productive systems should be analyzed in this area in terms of the strategy farmers use to maximize their utilities using the available resources. It is also necessary to analyze and to generate alternatives for elimination of elements of Paramo degradation such as burning, presence of pigs in wetlands, indiscriminate forest slashing and indiscriminate extraction of native vegetation.
Loja-Piura (Ecuador-Perú)
The Paramos of the Sabanilla Cordillera on the Ecuador-Peru border (25000 ha) connect the Southernmost tip of the Podocarpus National Park in Ecuador with the Colambo-Yacuri forest reserve on the border, and the Tabaconas Namballe Sanctuary in Peru. It is a relatively well conserved Paramo area dominated by grassland-scrubland and dwarf bamboo Paramo with many important wetlands. The area is very wet (up to 5000 mm) and has shallow fragile soils (organic layer up to 20 cm). This Paramo area supplies water to the dry, banana-growing area in the Pacific coast (Catamayo-Chira watershed) and to watersheds that drain towards the Amazon Basin. The project developed three Action Plans in this area, one at the Ecuadorian side (Jimbura) and two at the Peruvian side (Espíndola and Pacaipamba).
Jimbura in Ecuador is located in the south of the province of Loja, under the jurisdiction of the Municipality of Espíndola, which, together with other parishes, adds to an approximate area of 10.000 ha of Paramo. The intervention area is characterized by a glacier panorama located up to 3200 m, with a rocky landscape with a rough geography in most of the area. The area is cold and it is subjected to intense precipitations, with the presence of a very dense fog and permanent winds. The mean daily temperatures in the Paramo are around 8.5ºC, with a mean annual rainfall of 1101mm, with a period of heavy rains from November to April. The Jimbura Paramos are part of a complex ecological panorama with cloud forests, spiny dry forests and scrub, and two main types of Paramos (shrubby and grassland). The conservation status of the Paramo areas is relatively good due to a low intervention. Nevertheless, cattle raising and concomitant burning are present. Some wood and medicinal plants are used.
The municipality of Espíndola (ca. 18.000 inhabitants) is one of the poorest in Ecuador, with a poverty (non satisfied basic needs) of 94.3% and an extreme poverty of 77.1%. Scholarity (study years) is 4,4 and the deficit of basic residential services is 94,5. The population recognizes the importance of incorporating appropriate and complementary technologies in the use of the different ecological altitudinal levels that exist in this area.
In Perú, Espíndola (in Ayavaca, Piura, Peru, not to be mistaken with the Ecuadorian Espíndola municipality) is made up of three settlements: Espíndola, El Toldo, and El Huilco. The three are sections of the Samanga Peasant Community that are closer to the cloud forests and Paramos. The Samanga Community has an approximate area of 12,700 ha, of which 1,200 are cloud forests with Podocarpus and Alnus species, and 2,000 Paramo. The Paramo zone lies between 2,600 and 3,000 m in the western slopes of the Andes. In the Espíndola and El Toldo settlements families directly use Paramo services, mainly through grasslands for extensive cattle raising. This community is located on the left margin of the Espíndola river in the heights of the Catamayo-Chira watershed, between two landmarks: río Quingo headwaters in the higher part and the and Calvas in the lower part. Territorially there are three zones: lower, middle and upper, each one characterized by soils, vegetation, main crops, climate and water availability. The town centers have ca. 96 families and 382 inhabitants. The topography allows a good availability of water resources; although the flow fluctuates, there is water throughout the year, with a mean of 350 l/s in the wet months and of 150-200 l/s in the dry months. Espíndola, on the border with Ecuador, has grown more rapidly that the surrounding settlements . Nowadays it has a police station, migration office, modern educational and health infrastructure, and domestic drinking water service. Here the mean annual rainfall is 1,800 mm.
The vast majority of Paramos is communal. There are no management plans although the conscience about the importance of these ecosystems is growing. These areas are free for cattle and there is certain permissibility for families to do agriculture. In the lower zones people cultivate coffee, corn and small animals (chicken, pigs). The mean surface owned is 30 ha. The Paramo zone is mainly used for cattle shepherding throughout the year. This use is not done by Samanga families but by Huamba families, who have less Paramo extensions and use Samanga’s Paramos to cover their demands.
Another activity carried out in a lesser scale is slash and burning of the cloud forest bordering the Paramo. Some 10 families occupy the Paramos without previous petition., to cultivate after slash-and-burning. The Paramo consists of a grassland-scrubland dominated by Calamagrostis with a notable presence of Asteraceae and Ericaceae shrubs. There is a high diversity within genera such as Neurolepis, Puya and Paepalanthus. In the forests there are woody genera (Juglans, Podocarpus, Myrcianthes and Alnus). The Piura Paramos are considered by people as “strong” places where one can get cured and energized. The cloud forest harbors fauna with Odocoileus virginianus and Mazama, Penelope barbata, Andigena, Dasypus novemcinctus, toucans, Pseudalopex culpaeus, Tapirus pinchaque, anteater, woodpecker, birds, butterflies, reptiles, insects, and in the Paramo zone the Andean bear can be seen.
Despite environmentally unfriendly practices, such as slash and burning, cattle overgrazing and felling (by Ecuadorian Word traders), ca. 60-70% of the forests and Paramos can be said to be in a virgin state due to a low-density population. In the zone the cultural value of the lakes is Paramount. There are seven important lake systems from where many small ravines start.
The Pacaipamba Paramos are a possession of the San Juan de Cachiaco peasant community in the upper part of the Bellavista de Cachiaco watershed (Ayavaca, Piura, Peru). It is formed by three settlements: Totora, San Juan and El Palmo, close to the Paramo zone and whose inhabitants (approx. 835) use it directly and indirectly.
The population has a secondary educational level. The housing is rustic, with adobe, wood planks and straw thatching. In San Juan de Cachiaco only the Paramo portion has not been divided (1,500 ha). The agricultural activities are done below the Paramo where they cultivate Andean tubers and Fava beans. In the lower parts they cultivate coffee, sugar cane, and pastures. The use if pesticides is low and done mainly in the Lagunas de San Pablo sector. Each family has a mean number of cattle of three. Cows are the main income followed by pigs and sheep. Horses and mules are bred for burden and people transportation. Both agricultural and animal husbandry activities are not technically aided. Some 15 years ago people used the Paramos fir shepherding but nowadays it has become too dangerous supposedly due to raids and Andean bear attacks. There are two irrigation boards in El Palmo for the Chinchín and Chirimoyo canals. There are other canals such as Paramo, La Huaca, and Tierra Amarilla. Nine important lakes are in the Paramo, where the Chirimoyo, Mushcapam and Tamillo rivers originate.
Cajamarca (Perú)
The southernmost intervention area of the project is a complex of Paramo (locally called Jalca) areas around the Peruvian city of Cajamarca. In general, the Jalca area is heavily transformed by human occupation, mainly through overgrazing and side effects of the gold mining industry. The relatively small well conserved areas form the only examples of Jalca in this region and are the source of important watersheds that drain to the coastal desert (Jequetepeque) and to the Amazon basin (San Lucas). In the area, Action Plans were developed for two Jalca sites: Chetilla-Magdalena and Cajamarca.
Las Jalcas of Chetilla-Magdalena are a slope area of grasslands (3,200-3,770 m) that go down towards the Chetilla river. These places until 10 years ago were pastures but lately they have been divided and are the living quarters of families that come up from Cajamarca and Jequetepeque. The extension is ca. 4,000 ha and ca. 850 inhabitants. It was formerly part of the Sexemayo hacienda, which was dedicated to sheep and cows. In the upper part there are a few natural Paramo areas. Some pine plantations have been developed and are waiting to be used by the local population but nowadays serve as firewood from the pruning. In the middle altitude people cultivate exotic pastures there are some Paramo-jalca shrubby species used for firewood. Between the Paramo middle and upper parts people cultivate mainly potatoes, fava beans, Andean tubers, oats, wheat and barley. Most is used for self-consumption and some surplus is transported to local markets, such as in the case of aromatic herbs. An important activity is cattle, sheep, and horse raising as well as of small animals. Milk production is one of the main income-producing activities.
Jalcas are important water sources for the Jequetepeque basin and for local settlements and the district capital. The upper parts have been severely impacted and only a few sectors conserve a grass cover. Several NGOs have used pine tree for reforestation. There are also small shrubby areas and some untouched grassland areas. With the diminishing vegetation also animal populations have decreased. Deer, foxes, rabbits, cuy, vizcachas, several birds, are increasingly scarce. One of the main threats is local hunting.
Local people perceive the lack of water as a weighty problem. For about three years there has been drought. Frosts have increased consequently. It is not rare that all crops be lost. Many people have changed vegetables for grasses since they are deemed less risky (from 70% self-consumption agriculture has gone down to 30%). Nowadays the middle areas are for milk cattle and agriculture is done increasingly in the jalca belt. They usually plant oats initially.
The Cajamarca District jalcas cover an area of ca. 3,000 ha (3,200-3,900 m) comprising the upper basins of Chamis and Cushunga, both feeding the San Lucas river that crosses the city of Cajamarca towards de Amazon basin. The area topography is rather rough although it presents some rounded profiles, which, before the Agrarian Reform 40 years ago, were covered by extensive native grasslands with small depressions or wetlands (the larger one being the Chamis lake, with ca. 16 ha). This lake used to be the habitat for many migrant bird species but currently it is deeply threatened due to the drought.
These areas were formerly large haciendas dedicated to cattle raising. Nowadays the tendency is towards very small agricultural estates and strong erosion. The changing climate has favours the cultivation of crops in higher zones where currently the major threats are agricultural and mining practices. The tree local settlements (Chamis, Cushunga and Carhuaquero) have 2,666 inhabitants, 40% of them Quechua speakers. The main agricultural activity is the cultivation of potato, wheat, rye, Andean tubers, quinoa and barley. There are medicinal and other plants used such as straw, andacushma, chicoria, escorzonera, diego lopez, pushgay, valeriana, trenza, chulcolindo, paja blanca, pacha chamca, chulco, papilla, cushco, ishguin, ortiga negra – blanca, cola de caballo, estrella, pie de perro. The destination of these plants is mainly for self-consumption and some for sale. Cattle raising is not a main activity due to the lack of pastures. In some vases raygrass, clover and foraging barley are planted. However, there is not enough water and there is also a lack of technification in seeds and installations. Fauna-wise there are still deer, vizcachas, foxes, several birds, among others. The principal problems are soil poverty, winds and hailstorms, drought, plagues, etc.
El Duende (Colombia)
This pristine area in the Colombian western Cordillera will be used for comparison studies only, although a strong collaboration with the local environmental authority (CVC) and a conservation NGO (FUNDENA) has started to support the creation of a regional protected area and the development of its conservation plan.
The area is located in the Departments of Cauca and Chocó, with a total extension of 1,900 he. The zone belongs both to the Cauca and the Pacific basins. Metasedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the Dagua group make up the geology of the area. The geomorphology presents strong slopes above 80% that increase towards the ravines. This and the high rainfall (2500 to 4000 mm) cause a de-saturation of the soils due to washing. An optimal development of the soils is prevented by the torrentiality and deep slopes, which cause laminar erosion. The organic layer is thin. The Western cordillera Paramos are usually well-conserved small areas in the summit of a not very high but very irregular sierra with not much glaciation. The lack of human intervention renders this area particularly biologically important. A brief vegetation analysis showed that there are 155 Paramo plant species. The Paramos and surrounding forests register more than 140 bird species of which 22 fulfil AICA criteria The lower zone is inhabited by peasants of several origins, mainly from the municipality of Calima, an indigenous territory at ca. 2,000 m in the buffer zone. The total of veredas is 21, located in 8 corregimientos.
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Project Internvention Site
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Biodiversity
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Biological and geographical importance
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Conservation status
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Extension of Paramo formation
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Socio-economic and cultural diversity
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Cultural meaning
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Land tenure
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Direct threats
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Water resources sources
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Relationship with a protected natural area
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Information availability
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Accessibility
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Organizational and participation potential
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Institutional basis
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Existence of strategic projects
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General feasibility
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Tuñame
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2
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3
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2
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2526
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Poor pheasants and mestizos
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1
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Private /communal
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Potatoes/unplanned animal husbandry, fire
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4
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Buffer area of a National Monument
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2
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5
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1
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1
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1
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3
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Gavidia
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4
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4
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3
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6030
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Poor pheasants and mestizos
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4
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Private in a National Park
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Potatos/livestock/turism/garlic conflict
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3
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Part of Sierra Nevada National Park
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5
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5
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3
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2.5
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3
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4
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Rabanal
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5
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4
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3
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17567
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Poor pheasants and mestizos
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3
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Private
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Potato, fire, livestock, mining
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4
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No
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5
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4.5
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5
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5
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4
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5
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Belmira
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4
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4
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3.5
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19630
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Mestizo and settlers. Not very poor
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1
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Private
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Potato, intensive livestock, pigs, fire
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4.5
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Under construction
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4.5
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4.5
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4
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4.5
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4
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4
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El Duende
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5
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3
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5
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2500
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No
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2
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Wasteland
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In the future
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4
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Several private reserves
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3
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2
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3.5
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3.5
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4
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3.5
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Chiles
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4
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4
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3
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15500
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Poor pheasants and indigenous (Col) and wealthy mestizos (Ecu)
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4
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Communal /Private
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Potatoes, intensive livestock, fire, conflicts
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4
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Indigenous territory (Col) and Buffer zone of the El Angel Ecological Reserve (Ecu)
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2
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4
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4
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3
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2
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2
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Zuleta - Mojanda
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2
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3
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2
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29770
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Indigenous community and mestizo and hacienda
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3
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Communal/
Private/in conflict
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Burns, livestock, pine, uncontrolled tourism
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4
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Protected Forest (Mojanda) and Buffer Zone of the Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve
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2
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4.4
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4
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2
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2
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3
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LLangahua
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2
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2
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1
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5000
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Poor Indigenous
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4
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Private
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Fire /Livestock
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5
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Buffer Zone of the Chimborazo Faunistic Reserve
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4
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3
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4
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3
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4
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4
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Loja-Piura
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4
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4
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4
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25000
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Poor mestizo, traders and “absents”
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5
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Private/communal
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Fire, agriculture and mining
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4
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Colambo Protected Forest, Buffer Zone of the Tabaconas Namballe reserve
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3
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2
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3
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3
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5
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2.5
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Cajamarca
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2
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3
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1
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7000
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Poor pheasants and mestizos
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1
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Private
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Mining, agriculture forestry
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3
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No
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1
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4
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3
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3
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1
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3
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