The development of shiite political thought from shura to wilayat al-faqih

CRITIQUE OF THE TWELVER- IMAM SHIITES’ MAHDISM THEORY

The Twelver-Imam Mahdism theory was a complicated theory comprising of belief in the existence of the twelfth Imam: ‘Muhammad bin Hassan Askari’ and in his being the Awaited Mahdi. It admits that Imam Hassan Askari did not openly declare that he has a son. The theory rather, claims that, he hid him in secret due to the fear of Abbasid authorities, that he would overthrow their thrones, and due to that, they were searching for him to kill him, while still in the cradle.

            Serious academic research on the inception of this theory however, reveals the existence of a long time interval between the two parts of the theory. As it was in the beginning, centered around the existence of a son for Imam Askari, who inherits the Imamate from him. But it later turned out to be belief in his being the Awaited and occult Mahdi. The theory found in the ‘Occultation of the Mahdi’, an interpretation of the non-declaration of his birth by his father, and his non-appearance after that.

            In order to confirm the truth of this theory that plays a very great role in the history of Islam, and in shaping of the Twelver-Imam Shiite political thought, it is necessary to dissect the different components of this theory, and study each in depth and objectively. We would have firstly to find out: Was the Shiite Mahdism theory before the middle of the third (3^rd) century of Hijrah, clearly known and restricted to the person of the twelfth Imam- Muhammad bin Hassan Askari, or it was ambiguous and a general abstract idea.

A-   THE AMBIGUITY SURROUNDING THE IDENTITY OF THE MAHDI FROM AHL AL-BAYT

The history of the Imams from the household of the Prophet (Ahl al-Bayt) (peace be upon them), and their traditions being preserved by Imamate Shiite heritage, confirm the ambiguity surrounding the identity of Imam Mahdi and the non-declaration of his name or the time of his appearance. This was not due to the fear of the then authorities, but due to its not being specified beforehand. This was because Mahdism was initially mere idea and hope, hovering over the head of any one of them. This hope came to the fore when Imam Ali became the Caliph, and it became more intense after the murder of Imam Hussain bin Ali in Karbala. That was the time when many Shiites started preparing for revenge, and the overthrow of the Umayyad regime through armed revolt. The people were gathering around this or other Imam of the Ahl al-Bayt, with Mahdism being attributed to him. He will proclaim that and succeed, or die due to his proclamation and appearance. Some will then say, he has gone into hiding and occultation, and he will reappear in future.

            If the identity of the Mahdi has been outlined previously, since the time of Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) and the Shiites have reached consensus regarding it, they would not have gone to the left and to the right, and they would not have been perplexed, asking the Imams on the identity of the Mahdi.

            Imam Muhammad bin Ali Baqir while addressing the Shiites said: “ You never cease looking towards one of us, saying: “ He is the one!” then he returns to his Lord, till the time when Allah will raise for this affair, one about whom you do not know whether he has been born or not, whether he has been created or not!” (1)

            Kulayni says: Hakam bin Abi Na’im once came to Imam Baqir in Madinah and said to him: “ I have taken an oath between Rukn and Maqam (two holiest parts of the Ka’bah in Makkah) that if I meet you, I will not leave Madinah until I know whether you are the Qa’im of the family of the Prophet or not. “

      Imam Baqir said to him: “ O Hakam, all of us stand by the commands of Allah”

      Hakam however, was not satisfied with this general response, so he asked him specifically:

“Are you the Mahdi?” Baqir replied again in a general sense:“All of us guide to Allah” So Hakam asked more specifically and clearly:

“ Are you the owner of the sword and the one who inherited it?” For the third time the Imam responded vaguely:

“ All of us are owners of the swords, who inherited them.”

      Hakam then asked (demanding) more clarity: “ Are you the one to kill to enemies of Allah?” Imam Baqir replied:

“O Hakam! How can I be the one, when I am 45 years of age? While the owner of this affair is closer to the time of breast-feeding than me, and lighter when he rides on the back of an animal.” (2)]

      Kulayni and Nu’mani both say: “That Imam Sadiq did not like identifying the person of the Mahdi. Abu Hamzah one of his companions once asked him:

“ Are you the owner of this affair?” He replied: “ No.” He then said: “What about your son? “He said: “No.” He also said: “Is your grandchild the one?” He replied, “No.” Then he said: “Is he your great grandchild?” He replied!”No”. He (hakam) said at last “Then who is he?” He replied: “The one who will fill the world with justice as it was filled with injustice and tyranny, after the interval of Imams, as the Messenger of Allah was raised after the interval of Messengers (peace be upon them).” (3)

      Supporting this is the fact that when Imam Sadiq convinced the poet Sayyid al-Himyari, who believed in Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah being the Mahdi, when he convinced him of his death, he did not specify for him who is the Mahdi. Al-Himyari said some poetic verses recording his transformation from the belief in the Mahdism of Ibn Hanafiyyah. But he did not mention the identity of the Mahdi: The meaning of the poetry is as follows:

“ My prolonged statements on the son of Khaulah was not in opposition, from my side, to the pure lineage. But what was reported from the inheritor of Muhammad (peace be upon him), and what he said cannot be falsified. That the owner of the affair will be lost, not being seen and concealed, like the fearful one, watching (people’s movements). The wealth of the lost will be distributed, as if his loss was in the grave. When it was reported that the son of Khaulah was lost (in occultation), we accepted it and went on speaking on it. We said he is the Mahdi and the Qa’im, in whose justice all will live. If you say no, your statement is the truth, and what I have been instructed is inevitable, without any prejudice. I testify to my Lord, that your statement is the evidence on all the people, the obedient and the disobedient. The owner of the affair and the Qa’im, whom I longed for delightfully, will go into occultation inevitably, may Allah bless him while in occultation. He remains (in it) for some time and then appear at other times and he will rule over the East and the West. This is my religions belief in secret and in the open, I will not mind even if I am blamed on it.”

      Although Imam Sadiq, in an earlier report did not deny the possibility of his being the Qa’im as he did not emphasize it, Saduq reports from Ibn Abi Ja’far that he heard Sadiq saying: “ Woe onto the tyrants of the Arabs of a matter that has drawn closer.” He also reports from Sadir, and he from Abu Abdullah that he said: “ O Sadir, stay at your home, not leaving it and stay for days and nights. When it reaches you that Sufyan has appeared, come to us, even if on your feet.” (4) This reveals that Imam Sadiq was telling his companions of the imminence of his appearance. Muhammad bin Hassan Saffar however, reports in ‘Basair al-Darajat’ from Abu Basir that he one day came to Abu Abdullah and said to him:

-         “May I be your ransom, I would like to touch your chest.” (Abu Basir was a blind man). He replied him:

-         “ Do it”. He said: I torched his chest and his shoulders. He said, “Why this, O father of Muhammad?” Abu Basir said: “ May I be your ransom…I heard your father saying that the shoulders of the Qa’im are a bit down, spacious and broad between them.” Imam Sadiq then said:“O father of Muhammad, My father wore the shield of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) and it did not fit him…. I also wore it and it was this and that…. It will be worn by the Qa'im, and it would be as it was with the Messenger of Allah tight and fit, as if he raised its two sides by two rings. The owner of this affair will not be one, over forty (40) years of age. (5)

Tusi reports in ‘Al-Ghaybah’ a dialogue conducted between Imam Sadiq and Abu Basir, who asked him “Has this affair a long period (before being accomplished) so we relax ourselves till it comes?” The Imam said to him: “ Yes, but you revealed the secret and spread it, so Allah increased (the period).” He reports another tradition, with more direct bearing and clarity, where the Imam Sadiq said: “This affair was in me, but Allah delayed it, and He will do what He wishes in my progeny after that.” (6) This shows that the hope of Mahdism was on Imam Sadiq during his time. Due to this, when he died and the circumstances were not ripe for him to achieve his desired hope (ambition) the one inherent in the hearts of the Shiites, some of his followers, some of those very close to him, denied and rejected the news of his death, insisting that he went into occultation, and that he will appear very soon. They said: He was the Awaited Mahdi. The leader of such people was the leader of Shiites in Basrah: Abdullah bin Nawus.

THE HOPE OF KADHIM BEING THE MAHDI

With the intensity of the Abbasid political pressure on Imam Musa bin Ja’far Kadhim, the hope of Shiites who believed in his Imamate, increased as to his declaration and revolt leading to a rebellion against the Abbasid rule. Most of the Shiites believed seriously that Musa was the Qa’im and the Mahdi. They reported many traditions from Baqir and Sadiq in identifying his person. They might have added to it many things from their sides, based on their eagerness, love and suffering.

When Imam Kadhim died after thirty-five years of waiting and hope, the general Musawite Shiite populace did not believe the story of his death. They insisted on believing in his occultation, and his being alive and confirming that he was the Awaited Mahdi, who will appear and fill the earth with justice and fairness as it has been filled with injustice and tyranny

RIDA DENIES THE LIKELIHOOD OF HIS BEING THE MAHDI

That hope of (the Mahdi) returned to the Shiites after about twenty (20) years. That was when the Abbasid caliph Ma’mun called on Imam Ali bin Musa Rida, in the year 200 A.H. to Khurasan, and he appointed his as the Crown Prince in the year 201 A. H. This revived the hope in the minds of the Shiites and led them to the belief in the possibility of Rida becoming the Awaited Mahdi.

Kulayni reports in ‘Al-Kafi’ that Ayub bin Nuh went to Imam Rida and said to him. “ I hope that you will be the owner of this affair, and that Allah may bring it to you without the use of sword. You have already received oath of allegiance, and money have been minted with your name (on it).” Imam Rida however shattered his expectations and rejected being the Mahdi. (7)

When the poet Da’bal al-Khuza’i came to Imam Rida and recited a well-known poem: “ Schools of verses not being recited, and the house of revelation without premises”, he pointed to the Mahdi in an ambiguous manner. He said: “ The Imam has emerged. It was necessary for him to emerge, based on the name of Allah and His blessings. He distinguishes for us between the truth and falsehood. He rewarded for favours and calamities.” He did not mention him by name.

The identification of Imam Mahdi with the twelfth Imam of the Ahl al-Bayt, as it is known by the Twelver-Imam Shiites today, took place in a later date long after the death of Imam Hassan Askari, and the claim of his having a son in secret, in the beginning of the fourth century of Hijrah approximately. This happened after the development of the theory of ‘divine’ Imamate and its transformation from infinite number to limiting them to only twelve (12), so that the sect will be a Twelver-Imam (sect).

Sheikh Saduq has mentioned in ‘Ikmal al-Din’, which he wrote in the middle of the fourth century of Hijrah, a big number of traditions from the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him), and from the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt (peace be upon them). Some of them point to the Qa’im or the Mahdi without specifying his name and the name of his father. Some of them emphasized and specified his position, as the twelfth (Imam), and that he is the son of Hassan Askari. As it came in another report that says that: Imam Rida asked the poet ‘Da’bal Al-Khuza’i’, after he has recited his poem in which he pointed to the Mahdi in an ambiguous manner. He said to him: “Do you know who will be that Imam? And when will he appear?” He replied: “ No, my master, except that I heard of the emergence of an Imam from among you (Ahl al- Bayt) who will purify the world of mischief and corruption, and fill it with justice as it was filled with injustice.” He said to him: “ O Da’bal, the Imam after me will be Muhammad, after Muhammad his son Ali, after Ali his son Hassan, and after Hassan his son, the Evidence, the Awaited Qa’im” in his Occultation whose obedience is mandatory at the time of his appearance.” (8)

These reports are weak traditions both in their chains of transmission and in their contents, for they cannot withstand academic investigation. We will discuss them in the chapter on the critique of the traditional (special) evidence, and its unsoundness will be established subsequently.

 

B – THE MAHDISM PHENOMENON IN ISLAMIC HISTORY

The several and frequent claims of being the Mahdi, extending to   tens of such claims here and there, are what further confirm the ambiguity associated with the identity of the Mahdi among the members of the Prophet’s household. This even led to each sect or group to have more than one Mahdi. This phenomenon shows that the term ‘Mahdi’ because synonymous with revolt, freedom and justice and its re-emergence again in corrupt circumstances shows that the Muslim world is degenerating, day in day out.

Most of the stories of Mahdism in the early Islamic generations were connected to revolutionary political movements that confront injustice and persecution and gathered around one of the leaders, mostly being one of the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt (peace be upon them). When such movements fail and the Imam dies before he emerges (as a political leader), or is killed in the confrontation, or hides in obscure circumstances, his followers used to differ. Among them will be those who will submit to and accept the reality, and start searching for another new Imam and a new occasion for revolt. Some of them will not submit to the reality and will not accept defeat, and will be quick at believing in hearsays, which have it that, the revolting Imam has fled and has hidden himself and has gone into occultation. It is usually the simple-minded people who fixed their hopes on a person, exaggerating his attributes. So it becomes very difficult for them to change their minds, for that will mean a failure and total breakdown.

The supporters of Imam Ali bin Abi Talib (peace be upon him) who revolted against the Umayyad rule, and fought in the Battle of the Camel and fought Muawiyah in the Battle of Siffin, who also confronted the Kharijites in Nahrawan, were pinning their hopes in the rule of the Imam, during which they will enjoy justice and equity. Their hope in the Imam was very high. That was why some of them were shocked by the news of his assassination. They could not believe the news of his (untimely) death.

Shiite historians like Nubakhti, Ash’ari al-Qummi, Al-Kashi were saying that: ‘A group of Shiites did not accept the death of the Imam and they claimed that: ‘Ali was not killed nor did he die, and that he will never be killed, nor will be die, till he chases the Arabs with his stick and fill the earth with justice and equity, as it has been filled with injustice and tyranny.’ (9)

We can interpret this statement of the Mahdism of Imam Ali and his Occultation, as due to shock of the death, its sudden nature, as well as very high hope…This was because those people, were living very far away from Kufah could not bear the news of the Martyrdom of the Imam, after their hope in him, to establish universal justice on earth. This led to the acceptance of ideas contrary to the reality.

            After the massacre of Karbala Shiite fury gathered around the leadership of Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah, the brother of Imam Hussain for the purpose of revenge and retaliation for the martyrs of Karbala… When Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah died in obscure circumstances in the year 81 A.H, a group of his supporters –Kissanites-said that: ‘He did not die and that he was staying in the Ridwi mountains between Makkah and Madinah. They believed that he was the Imam, the Awaited Mahdi who was predicted by the Prophet (peace be upon him), who will fill the earth with justice and equity. (10).

            Sayyid Murtada Alam al-Huda interpreted the claims of the Kissanites on the Mahdism of Ibn Hanafiyyah as perplexity, which made them resort to it. (11)

            Perhaps perplexity and confusion was their lot, because they have pinned their hopes on Ibn Hanafiyyah to wrestle power from the Umayyads’ hands. They were disappointed when the desired goal was not achieved. His followers from among the Kissanite Shiites were forced to invent a doctrine on his Mahdism, and the perpetuation of his life and his occultation in their attempt to preserve the hope ignited in their hearts. Moreso that the Shiites in those days were aware of any predetermined particular personality as the ‘Awaited Mahdi’.

            Support for the belief in the Mahdism of Ibn Hanafiyyah declined with the emergence of Abu Hashim Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Hannafiyyah, as a new leader for the Shiites towards the close of the first century of Hijrah. Great hopes were pinned on him for attaining what his father was unable to attain… The crisis was repeated when Abu Hashim died without appearing (as the Mahdi)… This led to the belief of some Shiites in his hiding and occultation and saying that he was the Awaited Mahdi, and that he is alive and has not died. (12)

            As for those who admitted the death of Abu Hashim, they preserved their hopes in their hearts, by waiting for the emergence of one of the children of Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah in the future. They did not specify any particular person. (13)

THE MAHDISM OF AL-TAYYAR

            The Shiites who formed the main opposition group to the Umayyad rule, immediately gathered around a new leader from the Ahl al-Bayt, i.e. Abdullah bin Mu’awiyah bin Abdullah bin Jafar Al-Tayyar, who succeeded in establishing a Shiite state in Isfahan at the end of the Umayyad rule. He was, however defeated later, and was killed in obscure circumstances. Some of the Shiites could not bear the news of the collapse of the Shiite state. They claimed that Al-Tayyar was alive and has not died, and that he was staying in the Mountains of Isfahan, that he wouldl never die till he  hands over the reins of affairs to a man from Banu Hashim, of the children of Ali and Fatimahh. (14)

            The Shiite theory of Mahdism was not confined to the Fatimide family in the beginning, as the Kissanites-representing a stage in the development of Shiism-limited it to the household of Ali (Alawites), seeing possible in Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah and his children: or they limited it to them, but it extended to others outside their fold, like Abdullah bin Mu’awiyah bin Abdullah bin Ja’far al-Tayyar. It later developed and became confined only to the Fatimide family, in the children of Hassan and Hussain. At that time it was not confined to anyone of the two households. Due to this a group of Shiites believed in the Mahdism of Zayd bin Ali. And another group believed in the Mahdism of Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Hassan bin Hassan (Dhu al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah).

            As Zayd was killed after little while, his followers went to Dhu al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah, Abdullah bin Hassan, his father has named him Muhammad and predicted at the time of his birth that he will be the promised Mahdi, who was foretold by the Prophet (peace be upon him) and has said on himregarding him, “His name is like my name, and the name of his father is like the name of my father”, as was popularly known in that period.

THE MAHDISM OF DHU AL-NAFS AL-ZAKIYYAH

            Dhu al-Nafs Al-Zakiyyah hoped to rebel against the Umayyad rule, when the children of Hashim paid their allegiance to him at Abwa. Among them were, Ibrahim al-Imam, Saffah and Mansur. But it did not take long that the Abbasid rule was established, so those who paid allegiance to him deserted him, and another group of Shiites flocked around him. He left Madinah in the year 145 A.H and took over Makkah and Yemen, but he was killed after few months. Due to this a section of his followers were shocked and could not bear the news of the defeat, and did not believe the murder of the Mahdi, whose appearance they were waiting since very long time. They said that: ‘He was alive and did not die, nor was he killed, but was staying on the Mount of ‘Ilmiyyah’-between Makkah and Najd-till the time he will reappear. They held onto the Hadith of the prophet (peace be upon him), which says: “The Qa’im (Mahdi’s) name is like my name and his father’s name is like my father’s.” (15) 

            As there were no explicit, specific and well-known Hadiths, which explain the identity of the Mahdi, the followers of Dhu al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah have explained the Hadiths of Mahdism as referring to him, and have interpreted the Hadiths related to (the Mahdi) to also refer to him. They might have even fabricated some reports and attributed them to the Prophet (peace be upon him), in order to augment their theory and to support their Awaited Leader.

THE MAHDISM OF BAQIR

            Some reports state that: ‘A section of the Shiites believed in the Mahdism of Imam Muhammad bin Ali Baqir (peace be upon him) depending on a report which says that: ‘The prophet (peace be upon him) said to Jabir bin Abdullah al-Ansari: “ You will meet him, so say my ‘Salam’ to him.” (16)

Kulayni says in ‘Al-Kafi’: ‘Imam Baqir used to confine to his companions that the emergence (of the Mahdi) and his appearance were imminent, and he advised them to maintain it as a secret. Some of them abandon all they were doing waiting for the time of the blowing of (the siren)’. (17)

THE MAHDISM OF SADIQ

            After the death of Imam Baqir and the defeat of Muhammad bin Abdullah Dhu al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah, and the triumph of the Abbasids, and the popularity of Imam Jafar bin Muhammad Sadiq (peace be upon him), reports became widespread on his Mahdism. (18)

            Nubakhti reports that: ‘Some Shiites have reported from Imam Sadiq that he said: “If you see my head rolling to you from the mountain, you should not believe that, for I am your ‘Sahib’ (Mahdi).” And he also said: “If anyone informs you that he nursed me, washed my body (after death) and shrouded me, do not believe him, I am your companion (Sahib) and the companion of the sword.” (19) Hence a section of the supporters of Imam Sadiq denied admitting that he died. They also said that: “He is the Awaited Mahdi and that he is alive and did not die.” This group was known as the ‘Tawussites –attributed to Ajlan bin Tawus. (20) Among these group was Aban bin Uthman Al-Ahmar considered by al-Kashi to be one of the menof consensus (Ijma’), i.e. one of the closest people to Imam Sadiq. (21)

THE MAHDISM OF ISMA’IL

            From the above, it seams that the various Mahdism theories were born with time and in different circumstances. They were more of hopes than dependence on clear and sound Hadiths. The belief in the Occultation evolves when an Imam dies before his appearance (as the Mahdi). The Shiites have never ever agreed on the Mahdism of a particular Imam previously, and ithas been the same from the beginning. At the time when some of them believed in the Mahdism of Imam Sadiq, some of them were fixing their hopes on the Mahdism of his son Isma’il. When Isma’il died during the lifetime of his father Imam Sadiq, his supporters denied his death, and invented a doctrine in his Occultation. They interpreted his funeral and burial by Imam Sadiq openly, as a drama aimed at concealing the fact that Isma’il has fled and has hid himself, as a preparation for his reappearance in the future! (22)

            It is well known that the Shiites differed after the death of Imam Sadiq into six (6) different sects. The Isma’ilites believed in the life of Ismail, as well as his Imamate, Mahdism and occultation. Some of them after their despair in his Mahdism turned to accept the Mahdism of his son Muhammad. They then transferred Mahdism to the children of Isma’il till the appearance of the last of them, at the close of the third (3^rd) century when he established the Fatimide rule in North Africa.