Napatan Temples: a case Study from Gebel Barkal
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"The Southern Dongola Reach Survey: Report on Fieldwork in 2000." Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 13: 283-287. 1 Over the years my expedition has been sponsored officially both by the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (1986-1997) and by the Sudan Archaeological Mission of the University of Rome (1999-present) in collaboration with the National Corporation of Antiquities and Museums, Sudan. Our group has worked generally very short seasons within this period, not always annually: March 18-April 3, 1986, Feb. 14-March 30, 1987, Jan. 8-Feb.24, 1989, April 5-24, 1996, Jan. 1-20, 1997, Feb. 5-16, 1999, Dec. 3-12, 2000. Feb. 6-27, 2002. Besides myself as Director, the staff has consisted of Cynthia Shartzer, Project Manager (1986, 87, 89, 96, 97, 99, 02); Paul Duval, Alpinist (1987, 89); Lynn Holden and Nathalie Beaux, Egyptologists (1987); David Goodman, Surveyor (1989); Susanne Gänsicke, Conservator (1989, 96, 97); Margaret Watters, Geophysicist (2000), Pawel Wolf, Archaeologist (2002), Ulrike Nowotnik, Annett Dittrich, Diana Nickel, Archaeological Assistants (2002), William Riseman, Computer Specialist (in Boston) (1989-1995), Babiker el-Amin, Inspector (1986, 87. 89), El-Hassan Ahmed Mohammed, Inspector (1996, 97, 99. 00), Shadia Abu Rabu, Inspector (2002), and Faiz Hassan Osman, Assistant, Karima University (1997). I would like to thank and to recognize the great assistance rendered to us over the years by Nigm ed-Din Mohamed Sherif; Osama el-Nur; Khidir Adam Eisa; Ahmed Mohamed Ali Hakem, and Hassan Hussein Idress, who have all been directors of the Sudan Antiquities Service/NCAM while we were in the field. I would also like to express deep appreciation to William Kelly Simpson, Edward Brovarski, and Rita Freed, successive Curators of Egyptian Art at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, for supporting the expedition. Special thanks, too, are due to F. Sergio Donadoni and Alessandro Roccati, successive directors of the University of Rome Mission, for nurturing our work in the beginning, for agreeing to share their site with us, and then for allowing us to unite with their team in 1999, after my departure from the MFA. Many other scholars, with their helpful suggestions, have given me insights I might not otherwise have found by myself, so I would like to thank especially Lynn Holden, Nathalie Beaux, Ann Macy Roth, Peter Lacovara, W. Raymond Johnson, and Luc Gabolde. Funding of the project through 1987 was provided by the Egyptian Dept. Expedition Fund of the MFA, Boston, through contributions by James and Salle Vaughn, Gertrude Shelley, Angela Fischer, and Esther Anderson. In 1989, we were funded by the National Geographic Society; in 1996, I funded the expedition myself; and since 1997, the expedition has been fully supported by the Schiff Giorgini Foundation throug 2h the generous and enthusiastic support of Alan M. May. Thanks, too, to Sue McGovern for donating the cost of my flight from Boston to Khartoum in February 2002. In 1989 and 1996, the MFA Boston Expedition found many such early varieties of potsherds mixed with later debris, both in the sanctuary as well as on the western cliff of Gebel Barkal, outside the mouth of a shallow cave where an outcropping of kaolinite had been anciently mined. Kerma sherds were also found in small numbers in siftings of Reisner’s dumps from the debris of the kitchen area of the Napatan palace B 1200 (Kendall 1997, 336). Reisner also discovered two intact pre-Egyptian Nubian graves under the level of the sub-stru 3cture of B 600, built by Thutmose IV (Reisner 1918, 100; Dunham 1970, pl, 59, f-g). This was observed in 1988 by Isabella Caneva of the University of Rome Mission. During the work of the NCAM Bayuda Expedition at el-Meragh in 1999 and 2000, I observed an identical situation on the summit of Jebel Jumal, a small isolated flat-topped conical mountain about 3 km west of al-Meragh. This site and mountain are located 270 km north of Omdurman and 66 km south of Korti. The top of Jebel Jumal was strewn with wasters from chipped pebbles that had been brought up from the 4 base of the hill. For a map placement of Jebel Jumal, see Kendall 2001, fig. 12. 5 The dates used in this paper are those provided in Baines and Malek 1984, 36-37.. Statue: Boston MFA 23.737: Reisner 1931, 81, nos.2, 3; Dunham 1970, 17, fig. 4, pl. IV a,b; 81, no. 3, and Stele: Boston MFA 23.733: Reisner 1931, 80, no. 2; Reisner and Reisner 1933a, .24-39. In the rubble around B 300, Reisner also reported finding a block beari 6ng a fragmentary cartouche inscribed "Thutmose" (Reisner Diary, Jan. 13, 22, 1919). Boston MFA 23.734: Reisner 1918, 102-103; 1931, 81 7, no.15; Dunham 1970, 17, pls. 5-6; Reisner 1931, p.81, no.16; Dunham 1970, p. 28). I am much embarrassed that I did not recognize these stones as talatat years ago. I can only blame my limited field experience in Egypt and my Napatan historical focus. Fortunately, during a visit to Luxor in March, 2002, I was able to have several fruitful discussions about Gebel Barkal with Dr. W. Raymond Johnson, Director of the University of Chicago's Epigraphic Survey. He immediately pointed out to me that "my" stones were talatat and identical to those now stacked in rows on the west side of Luxor Temple. Indeed they were. I am extremely grateful to him for "putting me on the right t 8rack." The Barkal site obviously now acquires a major new historical dimension. See Bonnet, Honegger, and Valbelle 1998-1999, 84; Bonnet, Valbelle, and Ahm 9ed 2000, 1107-1113; Jacquet, Bonnet, and Jacquet 1969; Blackman 1937; Fa 10irman 1938. Reisner 1917, 216; 1931, 81, no. 81; Dunham 1970, p. 28, pls. 27a-c. "What he (Taharqa) made as his monument for his mother Mut of Napata: he rebuilt for her a temple-compound of beautiful, fine, white sandstone. Now His Majesty found this temple-compound built of stone by the ancestors in humble workmanship; then 11 he had this temple-compound built in excellent, enduring workmanship…" (FHN I 132) "B 800 second", Reisner supposed, had been built after the reign of Aspelta (Reisner 1920, 259; 1931, 87). In Feb. 1988, however, I had the chance to examine the notes of Maj. Orlando Felix in the Burton Ms. 25651 (p. 21) in the British Library. These reveal that the now destroyed walls of B 803-804 were still standing su 12fficiently high in the 1820's to preserve the fragment of a cartouche of Anlamani. Or "Most Select of Places." On th 13e scholarship history of the interpretation of the name, see Pamminger 1992, 97-99. Notice that Amun, Mut, and "Khonsu of Thebes" are depicted on the "Aryamani" Stele from Kawa (Macadam 1949. Pls. 32-33; FHN II 521-526) There seems no reason seriously to doubt that this king is really Alara, the probable b 14uilder of the earliest Napatan temples at both Kawa and Gebel Barkal. See note 57. Note that at Medinet Habu, offerings are said to be given to the cults of Amun-Re and his ka, Amun-Re Kamutef and his ka, t 15he Ennead and its kas, and the ka of the king. Walker 1991, 136 1615. See Kormysheva 2002, pagination yet unavailabl 17e. (16!) See Walker 1991, 55, 170-171, 179-180; FHN I 138, 195, 219 18. 8, (17!) Rundle-Clark 1991, 66. "Ptah foremost of Nubia" is mentioned on an abacus in B 500; the same god appears on the south wall of the first chamber at Abu Simbel, associated with Re and Amun of Gebel Barkal. "Atum of Heliopolis" is also mentioned on an abacus in B 500. Following normal pharaonic practice, the Napatan kings likened themselves to Amun's procreative manifestations as A 19tum and Ptah, and even Thoth (FHN I 59, 137, 161, 195, 196, 201, 254, II 405, 474. W.V. Davies, "New Fieldwork at Kurgus: The Pharaonic Inscriptions." Lecture presented at the Ninth Internatio 20nal Conference of Nubian Studies, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts. August 21-26, 2002. Translation: Dorman 1988, 22. I am exceedingly grateful to Dr. Luc Gabolde of the Mission CNRS at Karnak for bringing this passage a 21nd the implications of Block 287 of the Red Chapel to my attention in M 22arch, 2002. (21) See, for example, Pyramid Te 23xts 1248-49; 16 2452-53; Coffin Texts II 18 (22) Bolton 1936, 92-108; Bell. 1936, 314-316. Walker 1991, 142-143; see also PT 1624-25: "The Eye has issued from your head as the Upper Egyptian Crown Weret-Hekau; the Eye has issued from your head as the Lower Egyptian Crown Weret-Hekau; PT 56: May the Eye of Horus which is in the mansions of the Red Crown awake in peace; PT 635: Horus has given to you his Eye that you may take possession of the Wrrt-crown by means of it at the head of the 25 go 26ds." (Ignore). It was our colleague Lynn Holden who in 1987 first recognized the serpent as the pinnacle in the relief in B 300. This was the major breakthrough leading to all subsequent discoveries. It 27was also he, shortly thereafter, who brought the Abu Simbel relief to my attention. Eg. Spell 15B1b2 "I s 28hall establish for him a mound in the bark of millions of years…" (Allen 1974, 20). For example, CT I 185: "May you sail southward in the Night Bark and northward in the Day Ba 29rk….O Nt-Crown, O In-Crown, O Weret-H 30ekau, O fiery Serpent…" (Faulkner 1994, I 36). (29) See discussion below, Section XI. Walker 1991, 143. Note also PT 220 316: “This king …is the uraeus (irt) which came forth from the Eye of Re (i’rt R’).” Note FHN I 159, in which Taharqa calls himself "beloved of Bastet, who dwells in Bwgm." "Bwgm" was the name of the place in Nubia where the Eye of Re was supposed to dwell. Gebel Barkal has never been called by this name explicitly, but the iconography of B 300 leaves little reason to doubt that Gebel Barkal was the imagined place of her 32 residency. Certainly all of her forms were thought to reside within the pinnacle. Weret-Hekau is the name of the royal crown personified as a goddess. (For example PT 194-195, 196: "He has come to you, O Red Crown,…O fiery Serpent, ...O Great One, …O Weret-Hekau" [and cf. CT I 185]). Her name was written with the determinatives of the Red and White Crowns over dual nb-signs, or with the Double Crown over a single nb sign (Faulkner 1962, 64). Like all goddesses, she assumed many forms. She could appear simply as a woman, as, for example, in the Taharqa coronation relief at Kawa (Macadam 1955, 95, pl. 22), or she could appear as Hathor, wearing the horned disk, as in the Heb-Sed scenes of Amenhotep III at Soleb (M. Schiff Giorgini et al. 1998, pl. 50). She could appear with the head of a lioness, as at Medinet Habu, where she was simultaneously identified as Sekhmet and Bastet (Walker 1991, p. 111). She could also appear as a rearing cobra with a woman’s head, crowned with the swty crown of two tall plumes, which is customarily worn by queens and god’s wives. The most famous example of this iconography is found on a gold plaque from the tomb of Tutankhamun, where the human-headed serpent goddess appears (with the face of Queen Tiye) nursing the king (Troy 1986, 72. fig. 46). An unnamed statue of the goddess in this guise is in the University of Pennsylvania Museum (Capel and Markoe 1996, cat. 71.) We may also recognize a relief on the north wall of the tomb chapel of Arkamani at Meroe (Beg. N. 7) as a picture of Gebel Barkal with Weret-Hekau (Dunham and Chapman 1952, pl. 4, E). Here the mountain appears as a bench on which sit the gods Amun (as Re), 33 Weret-hekau (wearing the swty), Hathor (wearing disk and horns), and the pinnacle itself as a uraeus. See also Nebe 1986. Eg. PT 900-901: "O King, the dread of you is in the intact Eye of Horus, (namely) the White Crown, the serpent-goddess who is in Nekheb.…I provide you with the Eye of Horus, the Red Crown, rich in power and many-natured, that it may protect you, O King, just as it protects Horus…" (Faulkner 1969, 157). Sometimes the two royal uraei are called the two eyes of Horus, as in PT 33: "Take the two eyes of Horus, the black and the white; take them to your forehead that they may illumine your face." (Faulkner 1969, 9, and see also PT 40+1, 71. The association of Weret-Hekau, Nekhbet and the Eye of Horus is made clear in PT 2285: "O Osiris the King, take the Eye of Horus … for its magic is great on me. O Osiris the King, take the Eye of Horus, gr 34eat of magic - a Great of Magic (i.e. Weret-Hekau) vulture" (Faulkner 1969, 318). A great many Egyptian religious texts make it evident that there were really no distinctions between the “Eye of Re” and “Eye of Horus.” Both these two uraei and the goddesses implied in each all eventually overlapped, merged and shared identities, so that the uraei of the divine and royal crowns really became the same thing in the minds of the ancients. Because the king was seen as an incarnation and youthful manifestation of the god, his uraeus was often said to be the same as the god’s, and vice versa (Walker 1991, 141-143). The “Eye of Horus,” for example, was sometimes said to be on the brow of the Sun God (Ibid, 143). It was also said to protect Atum (Faulkner 1994, I 238-239; CT IV: 98-109). Weret-Hekau was also called Ma’at, the “Eye of Re” (Walker 1991, 119). Mut is called the Weret-Hekau of Thebes (Ibid, 188). And Weret-Hekau is sometimes identified as both “Eyes” (Ibid, 142). We see therefore that all the goddesses merged and converged within each uraeus and both uraei, just as they merged and converged within the pinnacle, which must ha 35ve been seen as a colossal statue (ka) of each goddess and all of them combined. The punning on the first three concepts is explicit in the following: PT 96: " the green (w3d) eye of Horus (wd3t)"; PT 1459: "I am he who grasps the White Crown, Master of the Curl of the Green Crown (W3d=Red Crown of Wadjet); I am the uraeus which went forth from Seth…I am he who takes care of (?) the Red One which came out of…I am the Eye of Horus…" (Faulkner 1969, 31, 225). See also Walker 1991, 142: 36 The Eye of Horus belongs to Re-Horakhty, which adorns him "in its name of Wadjyt". Three other amulets from the same group are identical on the obverse and portray the head of Bat (=Hathor) surmounted by an eye. The tresses of her hair are a pair of uraei. Each amulet thus represents Hathor as "eye" and "uraeus pair". The reverse of these amulets are each inscribed differently. The first is incised with an eye surmounted by the crown of Amun-Re, indicating its identity as Re/Eye of Re. The second bears the image of an eye, beside which Horus stands on a uraeus. This eye would be Horus/Eye of Horus. The other is incised with an image of the Double Crown on a n 37b base, which is the spelling of the name of Weret-Hekau (Dunham 1950, pl. 53A, B). Note that the wife and female counterpart of Apedemak, Amesemi, wears a headdress crested by a figure of a falcon (Horus), or a falcon standing on a crescent moon. Thus she herself must be a peculiarly Meroitic female personification of the “Eye 38of Horus,” which is the Moon (see Orientalia 69, fasc. 3 [2000], pl. 32, fig. 29). For example, PT 976: "O men, a serpent is bound for the sky, but I (i.e. the king) am the Eye of Horus…I take my departure as the Eye of Horus; PT 1147: " I am a snake multitudinous of coils; I am the scribe of the god's book, who says what is and brings about what s not…I (i.e. the king) am this Eye of Horus, which is stronger than men and mightier than the gods"; PT 1916-1920: "O King…cleanse yourself with (waters of the Canal of the Go 39d) as a god and go forth thence as the Eye of Re…" (Faulkner 1969, 166, 186, 277. The lunar aspect of the king is well illustrated in the mirror of Nastasen, where the disk into which the king looked is supported by a lunar crescent, held by a handle bearing figures of Amun and Re and Mut and Hathor. When the king looked into the mirror, he saw his face reflected as the 40 moon god Khonsu-Horus, the son of Mut-Hathor and Amun-Re (Wildung 1997, 238-239).. Dr. Leonard Lesko recognized these chapters as "Nubian" and discussed them in his paper at the Ninth International Conference of Egyptology in Cairo (March 28-April 3, 2000). When I heard his very important presentation I realized at once thes 41e chapters must be referring to the "hidden" meanings of the 42Gebel Barkal pinnacle. (41) See also FHN I 42, 86, 107, 128; FHN II 440, 464, 474 etc. For eloquent expession 43of these concepts see Horemheb's Hymn to Atum-Re-Harakhty in Murnane 1995, 228-230. These figures are also evoked by numerous amulets of pant 44heistic dwarf beings found in the royal tombs at el-Kurru (Dunham 1950, pls. 50-51) For a thorough d 45iscussion of the Napatan coronation, with full references, see Török 1997, 221-234. Török (1997, 134, and FHN I 51) believes that Piye early took the name Wsr-M3't-R', not so much to imitate Ramses II, but to "regard himself as the legitimate successor of the Theban Twenty-Third Dynasty Kings Pedubast I, Osorkon III, and Takeloth III." The name was certainly de rigeur for any ruler of this period, all of whom sought to link them 46selves with Ramses II, and was even assumed by A 47lara ("Ary-mi-Amun"). See note 57. (46) Note that in FHN II 473 the word ka has been incorrectly translated "shrine"t 48 From Feb. 16 and Feb. 21, 2002, I was joined at Gebel Barkal by Pawel Wolf, Ulricke Nowotnik, Annett Dittrich, and Diana Nickel. During these days we made exploratory trenches in B 1150. Between Dec. 3 and 12, 2000, a magetometry survey was conducted in several areas at Gebel Barkal by Geophysicist Margaret Watters. We were assisted also by Hassan Ahmed Mohammed (for NCAM), with help from Ahmed Moussa and Faiz Hassan Osman. The area of B 115 490 was surveyed Dec. 6; the results, not yet published, were less than satisfactory. The Horemheb text states that the deities occupying the Pr-nsr were "Neith, Nekhbet, Wadjet, Isis, Nephthys, Horus, Seth, and the entire Ennead." The Ennead would have included Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Seth, Isis and Nephthys. Since the latter three were previously named, we 50 have six deities remaining to add to the original named seven, yielding thirteen. 51 Cf. PT 910-913: "I know my mother (Mwt), I have not forgotten my mother the White Crown, …dwelling in Nekheb, Lady of the Pr-wr…O Ruddy One, O Red Crown, O Lady of the lands of Dep, O my mother, say I, give me your breast that I may suck from it…and live, and be little again" (Faulkner 1969, 159). 52 The work was carried out between 53 Feb. 6 and 14, 2002. Apart from our workmen, the team consisted of myself, Cynthia Shartzer and Shadia Abu Rabu for NCAM. Who really was this goddess Weret-Hekau, in whom all the goddesses and all the uraei could unite and who was said physically to have put the crown of the king's head? The Nastasen stele informs us that it was really the king's mother who "gave the crown in Napata…" (FHN I 472). We know that the king's mother was understood to be a daughter and wife of the god, just as she was considered to be the mother of the god in his earthly manifestation as king. Since, in these roles, she was identical to all the great goddesses, as well as being their sister, and since all these divine ladies were thought to be able to assume the forms and identities of each other at will (just as the king could assume the identities of so many gods), we must understand that the king's mother impersonated the goddesses when she entered their temples during religious ceremonies. This allowed her to act in their behalf as "Great of Magic." During the coronation, she became Weret-Hekau and crowned her son. When she and her son passed into the Mut temple, she became the goddess "Mother," and the king was ritually born again as "Ka-mut-ef". I have described above an inscription, datable to the reign of Anlamani, that appears on an interior doorway in B 1200 ( |