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Historically, a cornerstone of classical empiricismHistorically, a cornerstone of classical empiricism has been the notion that every true generalization must be confirmable by specific observations. In classical empiricism, the truth of “All balls are red,” for example, is assessed by inspecting balls; any observation of a non red ball refutes unequivocally the proposed generalization. For W. V. O. Quine, however, this constitutes an overly “narrow” conception of empiricism. “All balls are red,” he maintains, forms one strand within an entire web of statements (our knowledge); individual observations can be referred only to this web as a whole. As new observations are collected, he explains, they must be integrated into the web. Problems occur only if a contradiction develops between a new observation, say, “That ball is blue,” and the preexisting statements. In that case, he argues, any statement or combination of statements (not merely the “offending” generalization, as in classical empiricism) can be altered to achieve the fundamental requirement, a system free of contradictions, even if, in some cases, the alteration consists of labeling the new observation a “hallucination.” 17. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with presenting (A) criticisms of Quine’s views on the proper conceptualization of empiricism (B) evidence to support Quine’s claims about the problems inherent in classical empiricism (C) an account of Quine’s counterproposal to one of the traditional assumptions of classical empiricism (D) an overview of classical empiricism and its contributions to Quine’s alternate understanding of empiricism（C） (E) a history of classical empiricism and Quine’s reservations about it 18. According to Quine’s conception of empiricism, if a new observation were to contradict some statement already within our system of knowledge, which of the following would be true? (A) The new observation would be rejected as untrue. (B) Both the observation and the statement in our system that it contradicted would be discarded. (C) New observations would be added to our web of statements in order to expand our system of knowledge. (D) The observation or some part of our web of statements would need to be adjusted to resolve the contradiction.（D） (E) An entirely new field of knowledge would be created. 19. As described in the passage, Quine’s specific argument against classical empiricism would be most strengthened if he did which of the following? (A) Provided evidence that many observations are actually hallucinations. (B) Explained why new observations often invalidate preexisting generalizations. (C) Challenged the mechanism by which specific generalizations are derived from collections of particular observations. (D) Mentioned other critics of classical empiricism and the substance of their approaches.（E） (E) Gave an example of a specific generalization that has not been invalidated despite a contrary observation. 20. It can be inferred from the passage that Quine considers classical empiricism to be “overly ‘narrow’ ” (lines 7-8) for which of the following reasons? I. Classical empiricism requires that our system of generalizations be free of contradictions. II. Classical empiricism demands that in the case of a contradiction between an individual observation and a generalization, the generalization must be abandoned. III. Classical empiricism asserts that every observation will either confirm an existing generalization or initiate a new generalization. (A) II only (B) I and II only (C) I and III only (D) II and III only（A） (E) I, II, and III
In Raisin in the Sun, Lorraine Hansberry does not reject integration or the economic and moral promise of the American dream; rather, she remains loyal to this dream while looking, realistically, at its incomplete realization. Once we recognize this dual vision, we can accept the play’s ironic nuances as deliberate social commentaries by Hansberry rather than as the “unintentional” irony that Bigsby attributes to the work. Indeed a curiously persistent refusal to credit Hansberry with a capacity for intentional irony has led some critics to interpret the play’s thematic conflicts as mere confusion, contradiction, or eclecticism. Isaacs, for example, cannot easily reconcile Hansberry’s intense concern for her race with her ideal of human reconciliation. But the play’s complex view of Black self-esteem and human solidarity as compatible is no more “contradictory” than Du Bois’ famous, well-considered ideal of ethnic self-awareness coexisting with human unity, or Fanon’s emphasis on an ideal internationalism that also accommodates national identities and roles. 24. The author’s primary purpose in this passage is to (A) explain some critics’ refusal to consider Raisin in the Sun a deliberately ironic play (B) suggest that ironic nuances ally Raisin in the Sun with Du Bois’ and Fanon’s writings (C) analyze the fundamental dramatic conflicts in Raisin in the Sun (D) justify the inclusion of contradictory elements in Raisin in the Sun（E） (E) affirm the thematic coherence underlying Raisin in the Sun 25. It can be inferred from the passage that the author believes which of the following about Hansberry’s use of irony in Raisin in the Sun? (A) It derives from Hansberry’s eclectic approach to dramatic structure. (B) It is justified by Hansberry’s loyalty to a favorable depiction of American life. (C) It is influenced by the themes of works by Du Bois and Fanon. (D) It is more consistent with Hansberry’s concern for Black Americans than with her ideal of human reconciliation.（E） (E) It reflects Hansberry’s reservations about the extent to which the American dream has been realized. 26. In which of the following does the author of the passage reinforce his criticism of responses such as Isaacs’ to Raisin in the Sun? (A) The statement that Hansberry is “loyal” (line 3) to the American dream (B) The description of Hansberry’s concern for Black Americans as “intense” (line 13) (C) The assertion that Hansberry is concerned with “human solidarity” (line 15) (D) The description of Du Bois’ ideal as “well-considered” (line 17)（D） (E) The description of Fanon’s internationalism as “ideal” (line 19) 27. The author of the passage would probably consider which of the following judgments to be most similar to the reasoning of critics described in lines 8-12? (A) The world is certainly flat; therefore, the person proposing to sail around it is unquestionably foolhardy. (B) Radioactivity cannot be directly perceived; therefore, a scientist could not possibly control it in a laboratory. (C) The painter of this picture could not intend it to be funny, therefore, its humor must result from a lack of skill. (D) Traditional social mores are beneficial to culture; therefore, anyone who deviates from them acts destructively.（C） (E) Filmmakers who produce documentaries deal exclusively with facts; therefore, a filmmaker who reinterprets particular events is misleading us.
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