A report to the rufford small grants foundation
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Figure 9: Rattus exulans 
The collected murids and their distribution and status are summarized in Table 2 below. Table 2: The collected murids, their distribution, and status (Heaney et al., 1997)
From seven (7) days of mist-netting, five individuals of species Otopteropus cartilagonodus (Kock, 1969) were collected. The species belongs to Family Pteropodidae, consisting of fruit bats. One was observed early morning while it was flying around a clump of banana plants. Its common name is Luzon pygmy fruit bat. It is Endemic to the Philippines where it is widespread in Luzon Island and is known only from primary and well developed secondary forest in lowland, montane and mossy forest from 200 masl to 1900 masl. The abundance is low to moderate, usually common at middle elevations. Status is reported as Apparently stable because of its primary use of middle and upper elevation forest, but poorly known. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classified it as Endangered but Heaney et al. (1997) consider the listing to be premature. Figure 10: Otopteropus cartilagonodus 
During the field work, the local hunters who served as field guides were shown images of some mammals reported to be found in Luzon. They pointed to the Phloeomys pallidus (Nehring, 1890). They informed us that this rodent is found in their forest. P. Pallidus belongs to Family Muridae. Its common name is Bu-ot or Northern Luzon giant cloud rat and is reportedly widespread in Kalinga-Apayao, Laguna and Nueva Viscaya provinces (Oliver et al., 1993a), and recently verified from Bataan/Zambales region (Ong, unpubl. data). The species’ habitat ranges from sea level to high mountains (at least 2000 masl), in primary and secondary forest (Rabor, 1955; Thomas, 1898) and heavily disturbed scrub (Oliver et al., 1993a). The reported status is Widespread, apparently common in forests and hunted (Pasicolan, 1993; Oliver et al., 1993a). The same hunters informed us that they use air gun to catch birds. During the first visit to the place in January 2008, some locals offered to sell us 3 dead flame-breasted pigeons, Ptinolopus marchei (see Appendix A, Figure A.10). The guides also confirmed that they are able to trap Sus philippensis, the Philippine warty pig or whawhoy in the local language and the Cervus mariannus, commonly named the Philippine brown deer or ugsa. In fact, the research team saw two live deer being reared in Dananao. Figure 11: Cervus marianus 
Cervus mariannus is one of the three species of deer that are reported in the Philippines, all of which are endemic to the country. Flora There were a total of fifty seven (57) vascular plant species that were collected, representing thirty six (36) families. Angiosperm representatives totaled fifty (50) species. There was only one (1) gymnosperm representative and fourteen (14) vascular cryptogam species. The table below (Table 3) summarizes the collection from the site. Table 3: Flora Collection from Sitio Balugon
Plant species from the collection site shows typical tropical montane rainforest vegetation. Representative genera are Macaranga, Garcinia, and Syzygium. Higher elevation and temperate genera are also found such as Polyosma, Lithocarpus, Dacrycarpus and Rubus. The presence of diverse understory vegetation which includes Medinilla, Asplenium, Dendrochilum, Crepidium, Cephalomanes, Arisaema, Selaginella, Elastotema, Acrophorus, Atachnioides and Elaphaglossum is an evidence of a relatively open canopy. Arisaema and Cephalomanes and the observed profuse growth of mosses are proofs that the microclimate in this type of forest is relatively humid. Mt. Sto. Tomas (2256 masl), south of Baguio City shares a similar vegetation type with Tulgao. Sixteen families are common to both sites. These are Gesneriaceae, Araliaceae, Myrsinaceae, Aspleniaceae, Begoniaceae, Polypodiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Orchidaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, Lamiaceae, Sabiaceae, Piperaceae, Rubiaceae, Rosaceae, Chloranthaceae and Zingiberaceae. Common genera between these two sites are Aeschynanthus, Begonia, Elaeocarpus, Gomphostema, Meliosma, Piper, Polyosma, Rubus and Sarcandra. Mt. Data, in Bauko, Mt. Province, is another montane forest of similar vegetation character with that of Tulgao. These two sites share 20 families in common namely, Aceraceae, Araliaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, Fagaceae, Grossulariaceae, Lauraceae, Melastomataceae, Myrsinaceae, Myrtaceae, Podocarpaceae, Araceae, Aspleniaceae, Chloranthaceae, Hymenophyllaceae, Orchidaceae, Piperaceae, Polypodiaceae, Selaginellaceae, Symplocaceae and Urticaceae. It has been observed that there may be more families common between the two sites but because of the limited area sampled, not all of the plant families were scored. Some of the collected plants have existing or possible economic importance. Many are beautiful ornamental plants such as Medinilla, Huperzia, Selaginella and Cephalomanes. Several are cited having medicinal properties. One of these plants is Huperzia, the source of currently investigated type of secondary metabolites referred to as huperzines. Huperzines are the focus of research regarding Alzheimer’s disease. Others such as Selaginella are also associated with the treatment of gastric cancer and tumor inhibition. Cephalomanes is an example of a plant traditionally used as herbal medicine. In Malaysia, it is mixed with garlic and onions then smoked like tobacco to treat headache. It is also used to treat wounds caused by snake bites. Sarcandra glabra is another species that has economic importance. It is currently utilized as a beverage tea called itsa. Co (1989) mentions several uses for this plant including treatments for pneumonia, acute gastroenteritis, post-operative infections, scalds and burns, rheumatic arthritis, traumatic injuries and bone fractures. Microbiology Six soil samples were collected from six sampling sites and the colony forming units (cfu’s per gram of soil collected) were estimated using the dilution plate count method as shown below in Table 4. Table 4: Comparison of Colony Forming Units per gram of soil using the dilution plate count method among the different sampling sites
The agricultural land has the most number of cfu’s per ml of diluted soil sample followed by the settlement area (sites 4 and 5) while the river basin (site 3) had the least number of cfu’s per gram of soil sample. As discussed by Wollum (1994), agricultural land may be affected by the rhizosphere. Rhizosphere is the portion of the soil that is directly under the immediate influence of the plant root. Generally, microorganisms are found in greater numbers and diversity in the rhizosphere soil compared with non-rhizosphere soil. In the settlement area there were probably rhizophere soil too since the locals tend to plant in the vicinity of their households for their personal consumption. The least number of cfu’s/gram of soil were found in sites 2 and 3 which were from the river slope and river basin respectively. It was also observed that in the Site 2 sample, spreading pattern of growth was evident wherein counting was quite difficult so only few recognizable colonies were considered for counting. The possible explanation for this observation is that bacterial colonies found in rivers that included sites 2 and 3 are usually colonized into biofilms. Biofilms are microbial cells encased in an adhesive, usually a polysaccharide material and attached to a surface (Alexander, 1999). According to Sabater et al. (2002), biofilms are an ensemble of autotrophs and heterotrophs, which are highly efficient in removing inorganic and organic compounds, as well as other chemicals, from river water. They are, therefore, key elements in the self-purification processes which occur in rivers. Biofilm function is related to several environmental factors that govern river ecosystems: physical (light, temperature, water current), chemical (nutrient availability, toxicant effects), but also biological. Among the biological factors, community composition (algae, bacteria and fungi), biofilm structure (layer arrangement and biomass accumulation), and the presence of grazers determine variations in the efficiency of the self-depuration function of biofilms in rivers. This is therefore an interesting area to work on in future studies, since river microbial communities play an important role in global nutrient cycles and aggregated bacteria in biofilms especially present in river basins maybe important contributors. Biochemical Tests After successive purification procedures, twenty four morphologically different colonies were selected and subjected to biochemical studies and gram staining procedures. The biochemical tests used in the study were the following TSI (triple sugar iron) or H2S production, catalase test, casein hydrolysis test, oxidase test, indole test, and the gelatine hydrolysis test. These biochemical tests undertaken were based on the chemicals available at the Microbiology Laboratory of UP Baguio. Results are shown in Table 5. Triple Sugar Iron Test or Hydrogen Sulfide Production Test This test is employed to determine the ability of an organism to attack a specific carbohydrate incorporated into a basal growth medium with or without the production of gas, along with the determination of possible hydrogen sulfide production. The appearance of black ferrous sulfide indicates the production of hydrogen sulfide gas. It is also a characteristic preparation used to differentiate gram negative enteric organisms by their ability to ferment dextrose (or glucose), lactose or sucrose to reduce sulfites to sulfides. All of the isolates were negative for H2S production and gas production since there was no blackening observed along the line of inoculation. Only color changes were observed: red to yellow change in color is an indication that it is positive for dextrose fermentation, while completely yellow color observation is an indication that it is positive for lactose and or sucrose fermentation. Red color formation, meaning no change in color was observed in the medium used since TSI was red in color was an indication of no fermentation that occurred. This was evident in isolates no 4, 13 and 18. Table 5: Results of Biochemical Tests and Gram Staining Procedures for the 24 selected isolates from the six sampling sites
Catalase Test The catalase test was undertaken to detect for the presence of the enzyme catalase which is usually present in most bacteria. It catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide with the release of free oxygen. The formation of bubble upon the addition of hydrogen peroxide indicates a positive result. All isolates in this study gave a positive result for the catalase test as indicated in the table above. Casein Hydrolysis This test was used to determine the action of the organism on milk. Milk naturally contains substances like lactose, glucose, proteins, fats and vitamins. The appearance of clearing zones indicates a positive result for the production of the caseinase enzyme in the bacteria. Isolates no. 20, 21, 22 and 24 gave positive results, while all the rest of the isolates gave negative results. Gelatin Hydrolysis Gelatin is a protein that is solid at room temperature. If a bacterial isolate makes the enzyme gelatinase, the gelatin is hydrolyzed and becomes a liquid. Liquefaction of the gelatine indicates a positive result. In this study, all the isolates gave a positive result indicating that all of the isolates were able to break down the protein gelatin and liquefaction was observed. Oxidase Test This test is used to determine the presence of oxidase enzymes. The reagent which was impregnated into strips of filter paper contains tertramethyl-p-phenylenediamine which served as an alternate substrate for the cytochrome oxidase reaction. In the reduced state the reagent is colorless but when oxidized it becomes purple. The occurrence of a purplish color indicates a positive result. Among the twenty four isolates in this study only one (isolate No. 10) gave a negative result for the oxidase test. Indole Test This test is used to detect the ability of an organism to breakdown tryptophan to indole. The appearance of a purple red ring indicates a positive result. In our isolates, no indole production was observed, or all isolates gave a negative result for the indole test. Gram Staining Gram staining is a widely used method for characterizing and identifying bacteria based on the nature of their cell walls. Gram positive bacteria have thick peptidoglycan layer composed of glucose, muramic acid and polypeptides arranged in lattice-like formation that is responsible for the rigidity of the cell wall. Gram positive bacteria appear purple after gram staining because the primary stain and iodine form a compound that is relatively insoluble in the decolorizing agent. Their thick peptidoglycan layer also holds and encloses the crystal violet iodine compound firmly in the cell’s cytoplasm repulsing the effect of the decolorizer as well as the countersain applied afterwards retaining their purple color. Gram negative bacteria on the other hand, have thin peptidoglycan layer appearing red or pink after staining since the cell wall of gram negative bacteria will not bind on the positive dye and therefore it will absorb the counterstain, safranin. Gram staining results in this study revealed that among our 24 isolates, eight (8) were gram positive organisms and sixteen (16) were gram negative. Table 2 also shows the form of the various bacteria studied: bacilli are rod shaped microorganisms while cocci are spherical or circular in shape. Possible Genus of the Bacterial Isolates Based on biochemical tests and gram staining procedures and with the aid of Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology and Cowan and Steel’s Manual for the Identification of Medical Bacteria, we have traced the possible Genus of our isolates. Gram negative bacilli (Isolates no 1, 3, 5, 9 and 19) could possibly be Aeromonas, or Vibrio species. The Gram negative cocci (Isolate no 4, 6, 7, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17) could possibly be Neisseria sp. The Gram positive bacilli (Isolates No 12 ,20, 21 ,22 and 24) could possibly belong to Corynebacterium sp. The genus Corynebacterium consists of an extremely diverse group of bacteria including animal and plant pathogens as well as saprophytes. Some species are pathogenic like Corynebacterium diphtheria. The gram positive cocci (Isolates No. 2, 8 and 9) could possibly be Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, or Enterococcus. Mapping The output of an image classification exercise is a land cover map of Tulgao (see Figure 12 below). Results of the classification showed that of the classified area of 10,527.13 hectares, low density mixed forests made up close to 40%. High density mossy forest was made up of over 20%; grasslands constituted almost 16%, and secondary grassland vegetation close to 15%. A small portion at 5.83% was utilized for agriculture, mostly for rice (see following table). At the start of the cropping season for other subsistence or cash crops like white beans, black beans, mongo, and pigeon pea, many portions of the grasslands and areas with secondary grassland vegetation are cleared. Figure 12: Land Cover Map of Tulgao 
An older satellite image dated February 2, 1990 was likewise classified using the same training points to show changes in land cover over a 12-year period. The results showed that there was a significant reduction in the size of the high density mossy forest to as much as 1,700 hectares or 45% (Table 6), and a notable increase in area of low density mixed forest by 1,302 hectares or 11%. Secondary grasslands and agricultural lands have likewise expanded, while non-forests have become smaller, indicating possible conversion to secondary grassland vegetation areas (see Figure 13). A negligible percentage has been classified as water body, but ignored in this analysis, because the water system in general was not part of the classification, and especially since water bodies was not part of the classification. Table 6: Comparison of the results of land cover/land classification (1990 and 2002)
Based on the classified images, some patch metrics were computed using Fragstats, a spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. The table below shows a comparison of number of patches and largest patch index in 1990 and 2002. Notable is the increase in the number of patches of the high density mossy forest, and a reduction of the other classes, especially low density mixed forests, secondary grasslands and grasslands, implying that there has been a disturbance in the high density forests causing more degraded land covers to predominate. In terms of largest patch index, there was a marked reduction from 5.47 to 2.68 for the high density mossy forest. All other classes have increased. These indicators of fragmentation point to degradation of the high density mossy forest. Table 7: Patch Metrics for 1990 and 2002
Figure 13: Land Cover Maps of 1990 and 2002 
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