Issues Paper for the Australian Sea Lion

Interactions between Australian sea lions and the recreational or Indigenous fishing sectors have not been quantified. Thus, it is not known whether these fishing sectors pose a threat to Australian sea lion populations. Further information is needed to determine the level of interaction these sectors may have with Australian sea lions and the potential impacts to

5.1.2 Entanglement in marine debris

A number of studies have shown that entanglement in marine debris is likely to be a
significant source of mortality for Australian sea lion populations and may be contributing
to their lack of recovery across certain parts of their range (Page, et al., 2004; Shaughnessy,
et al., 2006). Entanglement in marine debris has been assessed in the Commonwealth’s
marine bioregional plans as a pressure ‘of concern’ for the Australian sea lion in the
South-west Marine Region. More information on the South-west Marine Region is available at:
(www.environment.gov.au/coasts/marineplans/index.html Surveys have indicated high levels of entanglement and identified that most of the debris is likely to have originated from the fishing sector. A study at Seal Bay during the 1990s and early 2000s found that about 1.3 per cent of the overall population was likely to have entanglements, one of the highest rates reported

for any species of pinniped (Page, et al., 2004). Monofilament polyamide or polypropylene gillnet, identical to that used by the demersal shark gillnet fishery in southern Australia,

Given the synthetic and typically durable nature of the materials involved in entanglements,

Earlier studies of pinniped entanglement in the northern hemisphere suggest that entanglement rates may be up to 35 times higher than can be determined from land-based observations alone, because entangled animals either die from injury or exhaustion at sea before they can return to land; need to stay at sea for much longer periods to forage to compensate for inefficiencies associated with the entanglement or haul-out in locations away from breeding colonies to avoid stress and further injury associated with the interactive nature of colonial life (Fowler, 1987; Fowler, et al., 1990).

(Source: [a] Nick J. Gales; [b] Derek J. Hamer).

In the early 1980s, the Commonwealth Government introduced the Protection of the Sea (Prevention of Pollution from Ships) Act 1983, which prohibits the disposal of plastic in Australian and international waters, in recognition of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) ratified in the late 1980s. Additionally in the early 2000s, the Australian and some state governments developed or implemented bycatch action plans for a number of fisheries that, among other things, was designed to mitigate situations where non-target species were “killed as a result of interaction with fishing gear (including lost fishing gear)… described as unaccounted mortality resulting from fishing” (AFMA, 2001; Page, et al., 2004). The fishing industry is developing ways to reduce the impact of bait packaging that uses strapping. For example, the Western Australian Department of Fisheries introduced the prohibition of “at sea” possession of bait bands from 15 November 2011, making it illegal to carry plastic bait bands on board recreational fishing vessels after this date. More information is available in the Recreational Fishing From Boat Licence 2011/2012 brochure published

Although a recent quantitative assessment of the impacts of these measures has not

In addition, the Commonwealth Threat Abatement Plan for the Impact of Marine Debris on Vertebrate Marine Life notes that the Australian sea lion has been “documented as negatively impacted by ingestion of, or entanglement in, harmful marine debris” (DEWHA, 2009).

5.2 Secondary threats

5.2.1 Marine aquaculture

The primary potential impact from marine aquaculture is due to loss of habitat for the Australian sea lion. A minor impact is entanglement in subsurface equipment and subsequent drowning.

Finfish aquaculture activities may result in the alteration of water chemistry due to nutrient influxes caused by precipitation of effluent from the farmed fish and of unconsumed feed pellets or bait fish, resulting in significant changes to the abundance and diversity of benthic flora and fauna (Brown, et al., 1987), although the impact is generally thought to be localised (Brown, et al., 1987; Cheshire, et al., 1996). Australia’s largest tuna aquaculture industry near Port Lincoln in South Australia underwent sustained growth during the 2000s. Although the impact on Australian sea lion populations is currently unknown, it seems to have had little impact on the nearby breeding colony at Dangerous Reef, which underwent sustained population growth during the 2000s (Goldsworthy, et al., 2007a; Goldsworthy, et al., 2009b).

In addition, the use of rack and line structures for sub-tidal and intertidal mussel and oyster farming tends to occur in shallow waters close to the coast, which often results in the loss of seagrass beds (Wear, et al., 2004; Bryars, et al., 2007). This outcome may have deleterious, albeit localised, consequences for the Australian sea lion, as foraging habits for this species indicate that seagrass beds are an important habitat (Goldsworthy, et al., 2009b; Lowther,

There has been no formal observer program to record deaths of Australian sea lions as a result of aquaculture operations. A small number of Australian sea lion deaths have been recorded as a result of animals drowning in the anti-predator nets used by this industry (Kemper & Gibbs, 1997). The use of these nets has now been reduced and husbandry practices related to repairing holes in nets and removing dead fish that attract Australian sea lions have improved. Collision or entanglement with infrastructure, including marine aquaculture infrastructure, has been assessed in the Commonwealth’s marine bioregional plans as a pressure ‘of potential concern’ for the Australian sea lion in the South-west Marine Region.

Without recent reliable estimates on the number of Australian sea lion deaths due to aquaculture operations the extent of the problem remains unknown, but is likely to be minor. The aquaculture industry is expected to expand across the range of the Australian sea lion
and this issue will need to be continually monitored.

5.2.2 Habitat degradation

Habitat degradation may occur as a result of land based run-off or impacts of developments such as aquaculture operations. Direct impacts on Australian sea lion survival may occur from these sources if they alter prey availability or impact on the feeding substrate. There is some evidence that localised impacts may occur from aquaculture cages (Brown, et al., 1987),
but little evidence to suggest that impacts are widespread and affecting survival or
reproductive success.

5.2.3 Human disturbance

The definition of human disturbance used here is restricted to any occasion when humans deliberately or accidentally place themselves in close proximity to Australian sea lions, on land or at sea. In these situations, individual Australian sea lions may display outward signs of fright, vigilance, aggression, reduced pup suckling time and/or relocation of females to suboptimal habitat (Orsini, 2004, Lovasz, et al., 2008). Land and boat based wildlife tourism, commercial and recreational boating activities and aircraft all have the potential to cause some level of disturbance that will elicit these responses. Disturbance at colonies during the breeding season may be particularly detrimental. Pups are likely to be the most affected, when their mothers flee a perceived or real threat and thus disrupt or end a feeding attendance session, or when the entire colony stampedes toward the sea for the same reason and tramples pups in the process. Similar situations for other pinniped species are known to contribute to shorter attendance

times by mothers, which results in a reduced growth rate in their pups (Lidgard, 1996).

Human presence at sensitive sites has been assessed in the Commonwealth’s marine bioregional plans as a pressure ‘of potential concern’ for the Australian sea lion in the

The Seal Bay breeding colony on Kangaroo Island is a major tourist attraction and was visited by 100 000 tourists each year during the mid 1990s to mid 2000s (DSEWPaC, 2010). Determining limits to the numbers of people permitted to visit Seal Bay (or other colonies) each year and minimum approach distances has been difficult, as there are no baseline studies available for periods prior to tourism with which to compare them. Nonetheless, one recent behavioural study at Seal Bay concluded that the minimum approach distance of six metres in place during the early 2000s should be extended to a minimum of 10 metres (Lovasz, et al., 2008), which has since been adopted.

Mitigation to prevent undue disturbance to Australia sea lions at Seal Bay from tourism exists in the form of a tour accreditation for commercial tour operators. This is assessed by the South Australian Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources.
5.2.4 Direct killing

There have been numerous records of instances of direct killing of Australian sea lions,

5.2.5 Disease

The degree and manner in which disease interacts with body condition, immune response and fertility rates in sea lion species is largely unknown and hence it is very difficult to estimate its contribution in limiting Australian sea lion population growth. However, several lines of evidence suggest disease is a significant cause of mortality in sea lion populations.

McIntosh (2007) undertook necropsies on 128 Australian sea lion pups to identify the cause of mortality. The causes were found in about half of these cases — with factors such as trauma, emaciation, still-birth and possible shark attack being identified — but no factor was identified

In support of this idea, hookworm (Beveridge, 1980) and tuberculosis (Mawson & Coughran, 1999; Cousins, et al., 2003) have been recorded in sea lion colonies and linked to the marked seasonal fluctuations in mortality that appear to occur between summer and winter breeding seasons. Overseas evidence suggests that hookworm can cause significant mortalities in some years in sea lion colonies but the extent that it is limiting growth in Australian sea lion populations is currently unknown.

Mass disease outbreaks are also of particular concern. Overseas, thousands of pinnipeds
have died in short periods of time through disease outbreaks (Baker, 1999). Although this has not occurred in Australian sea lion populations, small colonies would be particularly susceptible to an outbreak. The prevalence of disease and disease outbreaks is an area identified for ongoing research.

5.2.6 Pollution

As the Australian sea lion is a higher order predator, there is the possibility that persistent organic contaminants may accumulate in their bodies and have a long-term impact on health. To date there is no evidence of this, although research has been limited.

5.2.7 Oil spills

Oil spills pose a threat to all pinniped populations, especially those near major shipping lanes (Shaughnessy, 1999). Oiling of pinnipeds may lead to hypothermia if the fur is affected and to poisoning if toxic hydrocarbons are ingested, resulting in reduced foraging and reproductive fitness or death. Worldwide in the past four decades, there have been 26 oil spill events that are known to have affected pinnipeds (St. Aubin, 1990). In Australia, two oil spills have been known to have affected seals. The first occurred in 1991 when the bulk ore carrier MV Sanko Harvest wrecked off the south coast of Western Australia and spilled approximately 700 tonnes of fuel oil into the sea. Some of the oil washed onto two nearby New Zealand fur seal breeding colonies at Hood Island and Seal Rocks, in the Recherche Archipelago and at least 64 New Zealand fur seal pups were observed oiled at those two sites (Gales, 1991). Two Australian sea lions were also observed oiled at Figure of Eight Island, a possible Australian sea lion breeding colony, some 50 km to the northwest. The overall impact at the time and in the long-term on New Zealand fur seal and Australian sea lion populations in the area remains unclear.
The second oil spill occurred in Tasmania in 1995 when the bulk ore carrier MV Iron Baron ran aground and spilled approximately 300 tonnes of fuel oil, affecting waters around the Australian fur seal colony on Tenth Island (Pemberton, 1999). At least 20 seals of various age groups were observed oiled and the number of pups born in the following breeding season was reduced (Pemberton, 1999). Again, the overall long-term impact on Australian fur seals at Tenth Island remains unclear.

A long-term biological study spanning 14 years, following the ‘Exxon Valdez’ oil spill in Alaska, indicates the persistence of sub-surface oil contamination at sub-lethal levels, which continues to affect wildlife populations (Peterson, et al., 2003). With increasingly busy transport shipping activity in waters at the western and eastern ends of the range of the Australian sea lion

5.2.8 Noise

Although research into the vulnerability of the Australian sea lion to noise disturbance has not been undertaken, studies of similar species (e.g. harbour seal and grey seal) in the Northern Hemisphere indicate that pinnipeds are likely to be susceptible to increased noise levels or noise pollution,for example, from seismic surveys, construction or operation activities (Gordon, et al., 2003). Exposure to sharp, short sounds of moderate intensity for extended periods may cause avoidance behaviour and/or hearing threshold changes in pinnipeds (Gordon, et al., 2003). In addition, although indirect effects of noise on marine mammals (e.g. through impacts on their prey) has not been investigated, studies on the effects of seismic noise on bony fish (e.g. Turnpenny & Nedwell, 1994) indicate that seismic pulses may affect marine mammal prey species (Gordon, et al., 2003). Noise pollution has been assessed in the Commonwealth’s marine bioregional plans as a pressure ‘of potential concern’ for Australian sea lions in the South-west Marine Region.

5.2.9 Competition and prey depletion

Australian sea lions may compete for food with humans and other marine predators.
Across much of their range, Australian sea lion populations occur in waters shared with
the New Zealand fur seal and, to a lesser extent, with the Australian fur seal. Given this
broad scale range overlap in the species distributions, there has been speculation over the degree of inter-specific competition for prey resources, especially as populations of both fur seal species are currently increasing.

Current knowledge of the foraging ecology and diet of the Australian sea lion and of the distribution and abundance of its prey is insufficient to determine the degree to which the Australian sea lion competes with fur seals for food resources. However, given that all three species once coexisted at greater population densities before the advent of sealing (Shaughnessy & Warneke, 1987), niche differentiation is expected to be well developed. Anatomical and physiological differences between the Australian sea lion and fur seals (such as body size of adults) also suggest that the three species are able to exploit different food resources. However, the recent establishment of an Australian fur seal colony at North Casuarina Island (southwest of Kangaroo Island, at the eastern end of the geographic range of Australian sea lions) may result in localised competition for mutually targeted benthic prey species, which may become a larger problem over time if seals at this colony continue with westward expansion of their range (Shaughnessy, et al., 2010).

Little is known about the trophic interactions between fisheries and pinnipeds in Australian waters, either through direct competition for the same stocks or through more subtle competition through alteration of trophic structure. In South Australia, there are several significant commercial fisheries that may be exploiting several species that are also important prey for the Australian sea lion. The stocks of school shark and several other species that are present in the diet of Australian sea lions declined during the 1980s, possibly due to overexploitation
(BRS, 2004; Walker, et al., 2005; Woodhams, et al., 2011). Similarly, the commercial rock lobster fishery in South Australia is showing signs of being overfished, with declines in catch rate and many critical measures of stock health (i.e. egg production, puerulus settlement,
unit weight, biomass estimate, catch per unit effort) over the last one to three decades
(Ward, et al., 2004; Linnane, et al., 2011a; Linnane, et al., 2011b). Extraction of living resources has been assessed in the Commonwealth’s marine bioregional plans as a pressure ‘of potential concern’ for the Australian sea lion in the South-west Marine Region.

Incidental observations of Australian sea lions at colonies in South Australia indicated that animals are healthy and in good condition. However, the removal or reduction of several species important as prey to the Australian sea lion may reduce foraging and thus

5.2.10 Climate change

The definition of climate change used here is confined to sea level rise and ‘wave wash’ events associated with extreme weather patterns. The effect of ocean acidification due to carbon emissions and introduction into the marine environment on food production is also likely to have some level of impact in the future, although the process and extent remain unclear. In addition, increasing ocean temperatures may change ocean productivity and have been linked to lower pup survival (Goldsworthy, et. al., 2010). The Austrailan government’s marine bioregional plans assessed climate change as a pressure ‘of concern’ with respect to changes in sea surface temperature and ‘of potential concern’ with respect to sea level rise; changes in oceanography and changes in ocean acidification for the Australian sea lion in the South-west Marine Region.

There has been a prolonged warming in the earth’s atmosphere since the industrial revolution commenced in the mid 1700s (Levitus, et al., 2001).Global average surface temperature increased by about 1°C between 1961 and 1990 alone, presumably due to greenhouse gas effects (IPCC, 2007). Increased temperatures have caused polar ice caps to melt, with sea level rise occurring as a result. It is projected that sea level may rise by up to 88 cm by 2100 from 1990 levels (Rahmstorf, et al., 2007; Garnaut, 2011). Associated with these climatic

changes is an increased frequency and likelihood of extreme weather events, which at sea are increasingly associated with unusually strong winds and large swells in shelf and coastal regions (IPCC, 2007). At present, it is unclear what the impact of sea level rise and wave
wash events may have had or will have on Australian sea lion colonies. However, most breeding colonies are on very low lying islands, with Dangerous Reef, hosting one of the
largest breeding colonies, being only several metres above sea level at the highest point. Assuming the projected sea level rise becomes reality, several smaller breeding colonies
— such as the one on Nicholas Baudin Island — will become completely submerged.
There are many anecdotal reports of pups being washed off rocks during bad weather, especially at fur seal breeding colonies. Although the impacts on Australian sea lions
remains unclear, the combination of big wave events and sea level rise is likely to
impact on small breeding populations that reside on low lying islands.

6 Summary of Issues

This issues paper has been developed to support the Recovery Plan for the Australian Sea Lion. It summarises the biology and ecology of the Australian sea lion and details the immediate and identifiable threats to the species. Specifically, those threats and priority ongoing issues are outlined in brief below.

Fishery bycatch in demersal gillnets. This is a significant source of mortality for Australian sea lions. Estimated bycatch is in the low hundreds in waters adjacent to South Australia based on observed bycatch rates, with the possibility of more going unobserved. Considerable inroads have been made by AFMA and the associated fishery to mitigate the threat, including through high levels of observer coverage and year-round spatial closures. Much larger closures are implemented if mandated bycatch limits—which are reflective of the prevalence of small breeding populations—are reached. The effectiveness of the recent mitigation mechanisms requires ongoing assessment.

Fishery bycatch in rock lobster pots. While considered a much smaller threat than bycatch in demersal gillnets, relatively simple gear changes that have little impact on rock lobster catch can be made to mitigate Australian sea lion bycatch. While mitigation measures have been implemented by some fishers throughout the range of the Australian sea lion, mandated use in close proximity to breeding colonies has only been implemented on the west coast of Western Australia.

Entanglement in marine debris. An entanglement survey at one breeding colony and several anecdotal reports indicate that Australian sea lions are regularly entangled in monofilament gillnet material, which is likely to result in eventual death. Although the extent of this threat is uncertain, it is thought that many entangled individuals may go unobserved. Although pups may become entangled in lost material, juveniles and adults may acquire entanglements when they incidentally collide with active gillnets, or when they escape after becoming bycaught while attempting to depredate caught fish. Further measures are required to mitigate the impacts of entanglement in marine debris.

Human disturbance. The arid islands along the south and west coast of Australia are important breeding sites for Australian sea lions. Visitors (e.g. tourists and researchers)
may disturb Australian sea lions and elicit responses such as fright, vigilance, aggression, reduced pup suckling time and/or relocation of females to suboptimal habitat. The rapid increase in marine aquaculture may also disrupt breeding activities, or may destroy seagrass beds, which is a key foraging habitat. The impacts of human interactions on Australian sea lion colonies need to be monitored and mitigation measures developed.

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Appendix 1. Known breeding sites for the Australian sea lion and range of pup counts