Title : Control of Soft Rot after Harvest of Cabbage in Indonesia Author : Hisao higashio1

The effect of a hot water treatment was investigated by dipping cabbages for 5–15 min in water at a temperature of about 50°C. Also, cabbage was treated with hypochlorous acid at 200, 500 and 1,000 ppm concentrations for 5–15 min. Cabbages were dipped in 30 L water or solution for the treatment time, and then dried under natural conditions. In addition, the effect of preparation was examined. The preparation was conducted by removing sick leaves from the head and cutting the cut end one more time before the dipping treatment.

1. 
   Cabbages were dipped in 30 L water or solution for the treatment time, and then dried under natural conditions.
   

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  First activity : Cabbages were dipped in 30 L water or solution for the treatment time
  
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  Second activity : dried under natural conditions
  

2. 
   The preparation was conducted by removing sick leaves from the head and cutting the cut end one more time before the dipping treatment
   

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  First activity : The preparation was conducted by removing sick leaves from the head and cutting the cut end one more time
  
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  Second activity : the dipping treatment
  

Next, a preliminary drying treatment was examined to control this disease. The dryness of cabbage was managed after the harvest using the 7 following treatments: ① Storing indoors (average temperature : about 24°C) for one day after the harvest, ② Storing indoors for 6 days after the harvest, ③ Storing indoors in sealed polyethylene bags for 6 days after the harvest, ④ Storing 1 h outdoors in the field under the conditions after the harvest, ⑤ Storing 3 h outdoors in the field under the conditions after the harvest, ⑥ Storing 1 h in a drying room at 35°C,

and ⑦ Storing 3 h in a drying room at 35°C.

Analysis:

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   Next, a preliminary drying treatment was examined to control this disease.
   
2. 
   The dryness of cabbage was managed after the harvest using the 7 following treatments
   

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  First activity : the harvest using the 7 following treatments
  
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  Second activity : the dryness of cabbage was managed
  

3. 
   Storing indoors (average temperature : about 24°C) for one day after the harvest
   

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  First activity : the harvest
  
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  Second activity : storing indoors (average temperature : about 24°C) for one day
  

4. 
   Storing indoors for 6 days after the harvest
   

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  First activity : the harvest
  
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  Second activity : storing indoors for 6 days
  

5. 
   Storing indoors in sealed polyethylene bags for 6 days after the harvest
   

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  First activity : the harvest
  
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  Second activity : storing indoors in sealed polyethylene bags for 6 days
  

6. 
   Storing 1 h outdoors in the field under the conditions after the harvest
   

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  First activity : the harvest
  
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  Second activity : Storing 1 h outdoors in the field under the conditions
  

7. 
   Storing 3 h outdoors in the field under the conditions after the harvest
   

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  First activity : the harvest
  
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  Second activity : Storing 3 h outdoors in the field under the conditions
  

As showed in Fig. 3 (only the main results of treatments are indicated) soft rot at the cut surface was suppressed only by keeping cabbages indoors for 1 and 6 days after the harvest. In addition, the effect was superior to the calcium hydroxide application (Fig. 4). The next best result was obtained in 1 h in a drying room at 35°C. In the other treatments, soft rot occurred at a high rate with no suppressive effect apparent.

1. 
   As showed in Fig. 3 (only the main results of treatments are indicated) soft rot at the cut surface was suppressed only by keeping cabbages indoors for 1 and 6 days after the harvest
   

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  First activity : the harvest
  
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  Second activity : ) soft rot at the cut surface was suppressed only by keeping cabbages indoors for 1 and 6 days
  

We stored cabbages under various degrees of dryness after harvest. As a result, it was found that keeping them indoors for more than one day after the harvest had the most effect. It is recognized that soft rot bacteria doesn't enter plant tissue without a wound. Because of this, it is thought that the injuries to the cabbage head received at the time of harvest can be healed by storing it indoors after the harvest and so on, and that the bacteria cannot easily enter from the cabbage surface.

1. 
   We stored cabbages under various degrees of dryness after harvest
   

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  First activity : harvest
  
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  Second activity : We stored cabbages under various degrees of dryness
  

Some work suggests that planted shade systems are less diversethan rustic systems (2). Room (17) speculated that the aboveground ant diversity of Ghanaian cacao farms was substantiallygreater than that of New Guinea at least partly because the former are small rustic plantations and the latter larger planted shade farms. From studies of the ant-mosaics, there is some suggestion that in plantations of structurally simple shade, fewer ants are able to dominate the habitat more thoroughly (22).

1. 
   Cause: The former are small rustic plantations and the latter larger planted shade farms.
   

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  Room (17) speculated that the aboveground ant diversity of Ghanaian cacao farms
  

As in any agricultural commodity, cocoa suffers periodically from the crisis of overproduction. These wavelike variations lead to global price fluctuations. Cyclical fluctuations in the international price translate, in turn, into boom/bust cycles at the level of production. When prices are high, one or more production zones boom onto the global scene. As supply creeps up, prices fall. Simply stated, prices follow a supply and demand model, whether real or perceived. However, as with other major commodity pricing, the variables featured in the complex price equation all relate in some way to future supply, and include weather and yield forecasts, changing consumption habits, social conditions in producing countries, disease and pest problems, and institutional interventions. Historical data on cocoa show a pricing cycle of about 25 years (36). The development of genetic stock that can tolerate marginal conditions, in conjunction with policies that have allowed for their dissemination with human migration, are also factors favoring boom/bust cycles in cacao (6).

1. 
   Effect: Supply creeps up.
   

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  As supply creeps up, prices fall
  

Establishing a cacao farm involves the use of shade trees to help form an erect habit and provide a windbreak for young cacao trees (5). As the cacao matures, shade is often removed or reduced; shade reduction leads to increased short-term yields, but yields may decline dramatically unless chemical fertilizers are applied (37). The “zero-shade” system is a recurrent temptation, capturing the imagination and hopes of small growers, extension agents, and policymakers. The final stage of the cocoa cycle often finds growers replanting shade to create an agroforestry system. Diversification is a response to the falling cocoa yields and diminished income brought on by continued shadeless conditions. At this stage of the cocoa cycle, farmers may shift entirely to the production of another commodity crop (see ref. 21 for discussion of shifts between cacao and banana production in Central America).

1. 
   Effect: The cacao matures.
   

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  As the cacao matures, shade is often removed or reduced
  

Because of predictably changing ecological and social conditions, regional cacao production is often unstable, moving to agricultural frontiers, areas of primary tropical forest. Although cacao zones of long-term stability do occur (Trinidad, Ecuador), the overall pattern of instability and the search for new lands predominates and needs to be addressed. First, the continued clearing of agricultural frontiers is a threat to biodiversity conservation. Second, concentration of activity at particular frontier regions makes the global cacao crop vulnerable to the invasion of new diseases or pests. And third, there are few forest frontier regions left in the world.

1. 
   Effect: Regional cacao production is often unstable, moving to agricultural frontiers, areas of primary tropical forest.
   

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  Because of predictably changing ecological and social conditions, regional cacao production is often unstable, moving to agricultural frontiers, areas of primary tropical forest
  

Because no shade certification for cacao currently exists, and since the organic standards for cacao include a shade component (62), certified organic (“ecological” in Europe) cocoa is probably the best surrogate for marketable shade cacao. Organic certification confers an added value to the product. However, certified organic cocoa production is in its infancy currently represents a minuscule fraction of total world production of cocoa. Estimates now put total certified organic area at 8000 ha worldwide, coming mostly from Latin America. Its market share within the United States is less than 1% (USD 15.4 million out of USD 13 billion in the US). In Europe, organic cocoa weighs in with about USD 18.2 mill. in sales (Daniels, pers. comm.). Still, as in the case of coffee, organic cacao is growing rapidly. Between 1990 and 1996, organic foods in general grew by 20% a year (63). The organic chocolate market grew by 36% in 1996/ 97, with companies like the Organic Commodities Project reporting a doubling in sales within the first six months of 1998 (Daniels, pers. comm.).

1. 
   Effect: Certified organic (“ecological” in Europe) cocoa is probably the best surrogate for marketable shade cacao.
   

• 
  Because no shade certification for cacao currently exists, and since the organic standards for cacao include a shade component (62), certified organic (“ecological” in Europe) cocoa is probably the best surrogate for marketable shade cacao.
  

Cacao cultivation has a complex effect on global biodiversity. Because of continued increasing demands for chocolate, the amount of cacao produced has doubled and the area of cacao cultivation increased over 2.5 mill. ha in the past 25 years. Much of the expansion of cacao production has taken place in areas of primary forest in West Africa and on Borneo and Sulawesi. Even if demand for cacao were constant, cultivation for cacao would continue to involve the clearing of new lands because of the dynamic cacao cycles described earlier in this paper. Cacao is one of many crops that form the first step in a natural progression from forest to agricultural and degraded landscapes.

1. 
   Effect: The amount of cacao produced has doubled and the area of cacao cultivation increased over 2.5 mill. ha in the past 25 years.
   

• 
  Because of continued increasing demands for chocolate, the amount of cacao produced has doubled and the area of cacao cultivation increased over 2.5 mill. ha in the past 25 years.
  

However, cacao cultivation plays a relatively small role in tropical deforestation on a global scale. Furthermore, cacao farms with diverse shade have the potential to support greater local diversity and act as a more effective refuge for some tropical forest organisms than alternative lowland tropical crops, particularly annual crops and cattle pasture. Therefore, the approach to improving the role that cacao cultivation has in biodiversity conservation should be two-pronged. First, in each cacao-growing region, programs should be established to replant abandoned or failing cacao holdings using diverse shade that is useful to farmers and supports wildlife, as well as to protect remaining forest lands. Second, in regions of new cacao production, farms should be established on already deforested lands so that cacao would provide a mode of reforestation, and particular efforts should bemade to incorporate cacao as a buffer zone crop for established forest reserves and parks.

1. 
   Effect: Even if demand for cacao were constant, cultivation for cacao would continue to involve the clearing of new lands.
   

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  Even if demand for cacao were constant, cultivation for cacao would continue to involve the clearing of new lands because of the dynamic cacao cycles described earlier in this paper.
  

Causal relationship means the preceding statement is the result of the following one, or the other way around. These conjunctions can be used because, as, since, thus, consequently, therefore, and so.

Indonesia is currently facing nutrition security and food safety problems. Although production of major food commodities has grown, Indonesia is still strongly dependent on imports for some commodities. Approximately 25.28 million Indonesians consume less than 70 percent of the recommended dietary allowance of kcal/capita/day. The diet of Indonesians is also unbalanced, with a high contribution of rice and wheat to total energy intake but few tubers, vegetables, fruits, soybean, and animal foods. In addition, more than 100 million Indonesians currently face micronutrient deficiencies, including iron, vitamin A, and iodine deficiency. Most

who are severely energy deficient and consume an unbalanced diet are rural farmers of small plots, and agricultural productivity is being a ected negatively. Food safety of both fresh and processed products is another major issue. Textile coloring and other dangerous substances such as formalin are widely used, particularly by small-scale food industries. Solving the problems of food and nutrition security in Indonesia will require various strategic e orts, including improvement of higher education curricula and research in related fields.
Bogor Agricultural University provides a wide range of education services in fields related to food and nutrition security. Courses related to food production are taught by the Faculties of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, and Fisheries, and food safety courses are taught by the Faculties of Agricultural Technology, Animal Husbandry, and Fisheries. Nutrition security courses are o ered by Faculty of Human Ecology. Content analysis indicates that the food safety courses are more suitable for medium to large food industries than small-scale operations that actually have serious food safety problems. However, many student and faculty research projects are less relevant to current food safety problems and few investigate new food alternatives and

improvement of distribution and food accessibility, particularly among the poor. Improvement of curricula, course content, research, and community services are recommended.

1. 
   Production of major food commodities has grown.
   

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  Although production of major food commodities has grown, Indonesia is still strongly dependent on imports for some commodities.
  

2. 
   Content analysis indicates that the food safety courses are more suitable for medium to large food industries than small-scale operations that actually have serious food safety problems.
   

• 
  Content analysis indicates that the food safety courses are more suitable for medium to large food industries than small-scale operations that actually have serious food safety problems. However, many student and faculty research projects are less relevant to current food safety problems and few investigate new food alternatives and improvement of distribution and food accessibility, particularly among the poor.
  

In the last 5 years, Indonesia’s food security has been characterized by increased per capita availability resulting from the increasing production of important plant and animal food commodities. Production of rice, the most important staple food, has increased, with an average annual growth of 2.76% . Production of corn, fruits, Crude Palm Oil, and refined sugar increased sharply, while that of soybeans, cassava, and vegetables increased moderately. On the other hand, production of peanuts and sweet potatoes tended to decreased (Table ). Similarly, the production of animal food, except beef, also tended to increase (Table ). The increased production of animal foods, particularly chicken, eggs, and fish, is expected to have a positive impact on the improvement of diet quality among Indonesians. Those commodities have become more accessible, both physically and economically, to the needy lower income group due to their lower prices than other animal food sources.

1. 
   Production of corn, fruits, Crude Palm Oil, and refined sugar increased sharply, while that of soybeans, cassava, and vegetables increased moderately.
   

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  Production of corn, fruits, Crude Palm Oil, and refined sugar increased sharply, while that of soybeans, cassava, and vegetables increased moderately. On the other hand, production of peanuts and sweet potatoes tended to decreased
  

The increased food production has improved food availability, particularly in the last 3 years (Fig.1 ). Average food (equivalent to energy) availability at the national level in the last 5 years was approximately 3000 kcal/capita/day, which exceeded the minimum availability at the macro level as recommended by the1994 National Workshop on Food Nutrition of 2200 kcal/capita/day. However, according to Martianto and Baliwati (2008), this greater availability of food does not represent an improvement in the quality, because most of the energy sources come from high calorie food, particularly rice and palm oil. The ratio of starchy staplefoods is higher than 65% . In addition to being a source of energy, plant foods particularly rice Indonesian diet.

1. 
   According to Martianto and Baliwati (2008), this greater availability of food does not represent an improvement in the quality.
   

• 
  However, according to Martianto and Baliwati (2008), this greater availability of food does not represent an improvement in the quality, because most of the energy sources come from high calorie food, particularly rice and palm oil.
  

Despite good improvements in food production and availability of some major food commodities, the nation’s dependency on imports of wheat, soybeans, dairy products, and sugar is very high. Wheat, which is the second staple food after rice, is all imported and accounts for more than 4 million per year at an approximate cost of more than US$ billion a year (Suryana, ). Supplies of dairy products (particularly milk) and soybeans are highly dependent on imports (Table 3). Similarly, sugar, peanut, and meat imports are also high. In general, the cuto used nationally to express critical importation dependency is 10%.

1. 
   Good improvements in food production and availability of some major food commodities.
   

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  Despite good improvements in food production and availability of some major food commodities, the nation’s dependency on imports of wheat, soybeans, dairy products, and sugar is very high.
  

According to the 2004 National Workshop on Food and Nutrition, the average Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of energy for Indonesian people is kcal/capita/day. In the last 5 years (except for , for which data are not available), there was a trend of improvement in the soybeans, dairy products, and sugar is very high. average energy intake of the community. Based on SUSENAS 2007 and 2008 data, the RDA of 2000 kcal/capita/day has been achieved but with relatively poor quality food, as indicated by the low desirable dietary pattern (DDP), as presented in Table4 . The DDP score is a quantitative measure of diet quality that is a combination of adequacy level (achievement of RDA) and the composition of a balance diet. The highest score of indicates that the diet is fulfilling both quantity and quality requirements: it is adequate and balanced. Table shows that the contribution of cereals far exceeds the recommendation of kcal, while tubers, animal food, soybeans/nuts, and vegetables and fruits are still lower than the recommendation. This unbalanced composition represents a lowquality diet due to inadequate protein and micronutrients from animal food, soybeans/nuts, and vegetables and fruits.

1. 
   Table shows that the contribution of cereals far exceeds the recommendation of kcal.
   

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  Table shows that the contribution of cereals far exceeds the recommendation of kcal, while tubers, animal food, soybeans/nuts, and vegetables and fruits are still lower than the recommendation
  

The prevalence of malnutrition in terms of underweight, wasted, and stunted children among those under age is a general indicator of community nutrition (Fig 2. ). The data are based on the latest RISKESDAS (Primary Health Survey) conducted in and reported in . According to Budihardjo (2009 ), the cutoff points for malnutrition to be categorized as a public health problem poisoning are 10%, 5% , and 20% for underweight, wasted, and stunted children, respectively. Although the prevalence of underweight children was reduced from 25.8% in to 25.4% in 2007 , its prevalence is still very high and considered to be a public health problem.

1. 
   The prevalence of underweight children was reduced from 25.8% in to 25.4% in 2007.
   

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  Although the prevalence of underweight children was reduced from 25.8% in to 25.4% in 2007 , its prevalence is still very high and considered to be a public health problem.
  

Contrastive Relationship is as the opposite of the additive relationship. In other words, the speaker, having mentioned one thing, wants to go on to talk about something else which contrasts with and is often in opposition to the first thing.

argue that paddy fields emit green house gases such as methane and nitrous oxides which potentially aggravates the green house effect on earth. Similarly, many nonagriculture activities have imparted negatively on agriculture and this has changed the ability of agricultural systems to provide environmental services.

1. 
   Besides the production increase, lowland rice (paddy) agriculture, for example, have facilitated watershed ability to retain water temporarily and releasing it gradually to the downstream areas (Agus et al. 2001).
   

So far, there has been little documentation on environmental externalities of agriculture. Previous research dealing with agriculture-environment interface has concentrated on the valuation of the negative impacts of agriculture, including the effects of pesticide residue, soil erosion from agricultural land, and green house gas emission from agriculture. Research in Indonesia on the positive externalities is limited to what has been reported in Agus et al. (2001 and 2003). Deeper and more convincing research-based knowledge is necessary to increase awareness among policy makers as well as the entire communities on the roles of agriculture. A more comprehensive study that can balance the positive and negative externalities will lead to a more judicious and unbiased policy formulation, i.e. the policies that can provide incentives to maximize positive externalities and minimize the negative ones.

1. 
   A more comprehensive study that can balance the positive and negative externalities will lead to a more judicious and unbiased policy formulation, i.e. the policies that can provide incentives to maximize positive externalities and minimize the negative ones.
   

At present, Indonesia is utilizing approximately 64.0 million ha land for agriculture and home gardens, i.e. 8.3 million ha for lowland rice, 30 million ha for annual upland farming and grassland, and 25.5 million ha for perennial crops (Figure1). About 8.5 ha lands are covered by grassland, including Imperata cylindrica. Area for plantation, especially for oil palm expands rapidly in response to the increasing demand of international and domestic markets (Mulyani et al., 2003).

1. 
   At present, Indonesia is utilizing approximately 64.0 million ha land for agriculture and home gardens, i.e. 8.3 million ha for lowland rice, 30 million ha for annual upland farming and grassland, and 25.5 million ha for perennial crops (Figure1).
   

There have been hundreds of plot years of research comparing the effects of several agricultural practices on soil loss. In addition, erosion prediction models have been used and the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978) is among the most widely used. Sutono et al. (2003) for example used the USLE to calculate annual soil loss under different land use systems in Citarum River Basin (Table 1). The prediction used primary and secondary available data in the river basin area and as such, not only land use and management systems (soil cover and management systems, the C and P factors) differed but also other factors such as slope, rainfall erosivity, and soil erodibility depending on the spatial variation of the latter properties. In general, it was shown that annual upland system has the highest soil loss and followed by intercropping of annual upland crops with trees. The annual upland crop system in general is a rotation or a relay planting of food crops such as cassava, maize, peanuts, soybean and upland rice or intensive vegetable farming systems that usually coincides with steep slopes. Because of minimum soil protection by crops most of the year, these annual upland farming systems are very prone to erosion. Tea plantation gives somewhat high soil loss because of clean underbrush which lead to a high crop factor, the ‘C’ factor, apart from the fact that it is also usually found on steep slope areas. Paddy field and forest have the lowest soil loss because of terrace and dike systems of the former and the thick and multi-storeyed vegetation of the latter.

1. 
   In addition, erosion prediction models have been used and the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978) is among the most widely used. Sutono et al. (2003) for example used the USLE to calculate annual soil loss under different land use systems in Citarum River Basin (Table 1).
   

Sample data describing the effect of land use change on river water discharge was given by van Noordwijk (2001; unpublished). When forest is converted to agricultural land, in general water yield will increase (Figure 6) and perhaps fluctuation of water yield between seasons will also increase; i.e. greater chance for flood during the rainy season and drought during the wet season. This is mainly because forest evaporates and (the canopy) intercept more water as well as potentially infiltrate and store more water in the root zone. As the forest is cut, more water will reach the soil surface degradation and compaction of soil surface may occur and thus potentially increase runoff.

1. 
   When forest is converted to agricultural land, in general water yield will increase (Figure 6) and perhaps fluctuation of water yield between seasons will also increase; i.e. greater chance for flood during the rainy season and drought during the wet season.
   

Fertilizer use tends to increase in line with world population growth and quickly cause the increasing of N in environment, so that bother the ecological balance. For example the happening of eutrophication at surface water, lake acidity can be seen as indicator of global environmental degradation. Lake eutrophication like Cirata and Jatiluhur in West Java can generate loss in floating net fish production caused by H2S and CH4 gas (Darmono, 2001). The gases emerge as an effect of dead fish and other death water animal due to insufficient oxygen in the water. Increasing of N cause excessive growth of algae that can lessen oxygen or so called hypoxia at shallow water as well as deep water. Increased N fertilizer may also increase nitrous oxide (N2O) emission and increase P fertilizer may increase cadmium (Cd) in the soil.

1. 
   For example the happening of eutrophication at surface water, lake acidity can be seen as indicator of global environmental degradation
   

Indonesia, occupying only 1.3% of the world continent in a niche of 17% of the world fauna and flora species. This biological resources is important resources for socio-economics life and culture of the society. Traditional agriculture in Indonesia has a significant contribution to develop and preserve biodiversity. Tribe of Dayak in Kalimantan, for example, stores the best seed of traditional rice varieties each harvest season to be grown in the following season. Dayak of Pasir in Bay of Balikpapan, East Kalimantan plant more than 10 rice varieties. One can grow up to 17 varieties on a piece of 1.5 ha land. Society of Dayak Kenyah in Apo Kayan, East Kalimantan preserves at least 91 crop species including 25 rice varieties. Community of Dayak at upstream river of Bahau Atas have 58 traditional rice varieties. In the past, farmer in Sumatra and Java and also other areas in Indonesia have also developed various adapted location-specific rice varieties for food security and socio-cultural ceremony. Meanwhile, people in West Papua province preserve about 14 varieties of tuber crops, especially sweet potatoes (KONPHALINDO 1994). More than 40 varieties of banana and 300 clones of mango varieties have been yielded from traditional agroforestry land. A backyard garden in Java can have a mixture of 152 trees, 48 food crop, and 39 herbal species. In East Kalimantan, society develop lembo fruits forest what seems to be the richest collection of tree species. Meanwhile in West and Central Kalimantan, people conserve tengkawang garden. Mangifera casturi a kind of mango, only exist at village’s garden in South Kalimantan. These gardens can include 250 crop species including 50 fruits species. In addition in some village garden of Cibitung, Bogor there are more than 60 fruits crop species with attractive economic values.

1. 
   Tribe of Dayak in Kalimantan, for example, stores the best seed of traditional rice varieties each harvest season to be grown in the following season.
   

Several communities preserve biodiversity with their local systems. Community of Baduy in Banten province, for example, implement traditional land use and land suitability systems for settlement, protection forest, agriculture, and hunting territory. Implementation Three Hita Karana ( THK) philosophy in Bali, also represent one of the traditional value or culture to take care of environment sustainability. THK consisted of three principle namely relationship between (1) people in a society, (2) people and the environment, and (3) people and God (KONPHALINDO, 1994).

1. 
   Several communities preserve biodiversity with their local systems. Community of Baduy in Banten province, for example, implement traditional land use and land suitability systems for settlement, protection forest, agriculture, and hunting territory
   

Exemplification is the action of giving examples. Commonly used in academic writing.

• 
  f.e. / e.g. – for example
  
• 
  i.e. – that is (to say); in other words
  
• 
  viz. – namely; it is/they are
  
• 
  e.g. There are four language skills, viz. listening, speaking, reading and writing