Understanding the collapse of White-lipped Peccary populations in continuous areas of Atlantic Forest
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Acknowledgments This project was supported by a Rufford Small Grant for Nature Conservation, the Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo – FAPESP (Biota Program, FAPESP 2007/03392-6). J. Moreira receives a scholarship from the Ford Foundation, International Fellowship Program, D. Norris from CNPq and M, Galetti receives a fellowship from CNPq. We thank UNESP (Rio Claro) for logistical support and the Instituto Florestal de São Paulo for permission to conduct research in the study site (COTEC SMA: 260108 014.661/010). Fernanda Michalski, Ricardo Bulhosa and Tadeu de Oliveira kindly assisted in the identification of carnivore tracks and photos and Raisa Rodarte identified Didelphid and Sciurid photos. References ABBA, A. M. & SUPERINA, M. 2009. Dasypus novemcinctus. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1. http//www.iucnredlist.org (last accessed on 10/09/2011). ABREU JR, E. F. & KÖHLER, A. 2009. 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NORRIS, D., ROCHA-MENDES, F., MARQUES, R., DE ALMEIDA NOBRE, R. & GALETTI, M. 2011b. Density and Spatial Distribution of Buffy-tufted-ear Marmosets (Callithrix aurita) in a Continuous Atlantic Forest. Int. J. Primatol. 32: 811-829. OKSANEN, J., GUILLAUME BLANCHET, F., KINDT, R., LEGENDRE, P., O'HARA, R. B., SIMPSON, G. L., SOLYMOS, P., STEVENS, M. H. H. & WAGNER, H. 2011. vegan: Community Ecology Package version 1.17-10. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan (last accessed on 02/08/2011). PAVIOLO, A., DI BLANCO, Y.E., DE ANGELO, C.D. & DI BITETTI, M.S. 2009. Protection affects the abundance and activity patterns of pumas in the Atlantic Forest. J. Mammal. 90: 926-934. PERES, C.A. 1999. General guidelines for standardizing line-transect surveys of tropical forest primates. Neotropical Primates 7: 11–16. R DEVELOPMENT CORE TEAM. 2011. R version 2.13.0: A language and environment for statistical computing. 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TABARELLI, M., AGUIAR, A.V., RIBEIRO, M.C., METZGER, J.P. & PERES, C.A. 2010. Prospects for biodiversity conservation in the Atlantic Forest: Lessons from aging human-modified landscapes. Biol. Conserv. 143: 2328-2340. TABARELLI, M., PINTO, L.P., SILVA, J.M.C., HIROTA, M. & BEDÊ, L. 2005. Challenges and Opportunities for Biodiversity Conservation in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Conserv. Biol. 19: 695-700. TEIXEIRA, A.M.G., SOARES-FILHO, B.S., FREITAS, S.R. & METZGER, J.P. 2009. Modelling landscape dynamics in an Atlantic Rainforest region: Implications for conservation. Forest Ecol. Manag. 257: 1219-1230. VELOSO, H.P., RANGEL-FILHO, A.L.R. &. LIMA, J.C.A. 1991. Classificação da vegetação brasileira adaptada a um sistema universal. IBGE, Rio de Janeiro. WELLS, M.P. & BRANDON, K.E. 1993. The principles and practice of buffer zones and social and local participation in biodiversity conservation. Ambio 22: 157-162. Table 1 List of mammal species from Núcleo Caraguatatuba, Serra do Mar State Park, São Paulo, Brazil.
a How species were detected. Photo = camera-trap, Track = tracks observed along trails or on prepared track-stations, Visual = diurnal line transect census, and Other = carcass, faeces, or vocalizations. b Threat status in the State of São Paulo (Magalhães-Bressan et al. 2009, p. 599). From least to most threatened: LC = least concern, NT = near threatened, VU = vulnerable, EN = endangered c International threat status following (IUCN 2011). NE= not evaluated, DD = data deficient, then from least to most threatened: LC = least concern, NT = near threatened, VU = vulnerable, EN = endangered dSpecies relative abundance.LT = detections per 10 km of line transect census and CT = independent photos per 10 camera-trap nights. Figure legends Figure 1 Study area showing locations of survey trails and camera-traps used to survey mid and large bodied mammals in Núcleo Caraguatatuba, Serra do Mar State Park, São Paulo, Brazil Figure 2 Mean accumulation curve and 95% confidence interval (shaded area) of the expected number of mid to large bodied mammal species in Núcleo Caraguatatuba, Serra do Mar State Park, São Paulo, Brazil. Figure 1 Figure 2  
Appendix 2 – Submission to “Zoologia” ( http://www.1 scielo.br/zool ) 
SHORT COMMUNICATION Comparison of human and canine scat detection efficiency in a continuous Atlantic Forest Márcio L. de Oliveira1,³; Darren Norris²; José F. Moreira²; Pedro H. de F. Peres¹; Mauro Galetti²; José M. B. Duarte¹ Núcleo de Pesquisa e Conservação de Cervídeos - NUPECCE, UNESP Campus de Jaboticabal. 14884-900 Jaboticabal, SP, Brasil. E-mail: oliveiraml1@yahoo.com.br; pedrof182@gmail.com ²Laboratório de Biologia da Conservação, Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Caixa Postal 199, Rio Claro, 13506-900, SP, Brazil ³Corresponding author.
KEY WORDS. Atlantic Forest; deer; faecal samples, Mazama; sampling; Focal samples have a wide range of applications for temperate and tropical wildlife studies (KOHN & WAYNE 1997, BEJA-PEREA et al. 2007, GONZALEZ et al. 2009). A common challenge for all such studies is that of finding large amounts of faecal samples in the field. The challenge of obtaining sufficient quantities of faecal samples becomes even more acute when research involves prey species that have developed strategies to make scats cryptic to avoid predation. One possibility to locate such samples is the use of a scat detection dog (SMITH et al. 2001). The use of detection dogs to locate scats has proved to be a flexible and adaptable survey technique. They have been used to locate faecal samples from whales in the North Atlantic (ROLLAND et al. 2006) and to locate faecal samples from a variety of carnivore species in various North American ecosystems (SMITH et al. 2003, WASSER et al. 2004, SMITH et al. 2005, HARRISON 2006, LONG et al. 2007, REED et al. 2011). Scat detection dogs have also been used in the Cerrado and Amazon biomes of Brazil to locate carnivore and xenarthran faecal samples, (MICHALSKI et al. 2011, VYNNE et al. 2011). However the use of scat detection dogs to locate ungulate faecal samples in the Neotropics has yet to be demonstrated. The present study aimed to compare the sampling efficiency of a scat detection dog to that of human researchers. The present study was conducted in the Paranapiacaba Ecological Continuum, which is part of the Southern Reserves of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest World Heritage Site. More specifically research activities took place at the Carlos Botelho State Park (24o 08’ S and 47o 59’ W) and the neighbouring Intervales State Park (24o 16’ S and 48o 52’ W) (Fig. 1), which together protect an area of 78,837 ha (37 433 and 41 404 ha Carlos Bothelo, Intervales respectively). The climate in the region is humid temperate (“Cfa”, according to the Köppen climate classification), with hot austral summer temperatures associated with high rainfall and the absence of a dry winter. A variety of primary and secondary Atlantic Forest types are found within the protected areas including dense ombrofilous forest. The occurrence of three deer species has been confirmed in the region: Mazama americana, Mazama gouazoubira and Mazama bororo. (BLACK-DÉCIMA et al. 2010, VOGLIOTTI & DUARTE 2010). Populations of the small red brocket deer (M. bororo) are present in both Carlos Botelho and Intervales State Parks, with an estimated maximum of 615 individuals and a density of 1.51 ind/km2 recorded at Intervales (GONZÁLEZ & GARCÍA 2010, VOGLIOTTI & DUARTE 2010). Due to similarities in forest types, topography and anthropogenic pressure between the neighbouring areas we assumed that deer population densities are similar in both parks. The dog, a female of mixed breed, was trained by the Military Police of São Paulo State narcotics detection program. The only modification to the standard training program was that the target odour was changed to a mix of Mazama 75 species faeces obtained from captive individuals. To ensure that faecal samples were as similar as possible to those from wild individuals the deer were fed only with fruits and fresh leaves prior to the collection of training faeces. When the dog finds a deer scat sample, it sits nearby and barks. After that, the handler provides the reward of play with a tennis ball. From April to June 2011, 194.9 kilometres of trails were walked across the Intervales State Park by two observers visually searching for faecal samples (Fig. 1). Based on detections of > 45 faecal samples from non-target species (Tapirus terrestris and unidentified carnivores) the sampling strip width for human observers was estimated at 2 meters (i.e. one meter either side of the survey trail). Between March and May 2011, 39 kilometres of trails were walked across the Carlos Botelho State Park by a dog team. The dog team consisted of a handler, his dog (working off-lead) and an orienteer that did the GPS navigation (Fig. 1). In order to determine the dogs effective sampling strip width an experiment was carried out in a rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) plantation where 122 scat samples were placed every 10 m along a transect at known perpendicular distances (0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21m). Perpendicular distances were randomly selected and faecal samples were placed alternately one to the left and one to the right of the transect line. The dog handler walked along the transect line with the dog working freely off-lead. We used linear regression to estimate the maximum perpendicular distance from the transect line that a sample could be found. In the regression model we used perpendicular distance (modelled as a continuous variable) to predict the response of the percentage of samples recovered. We used the lower 95% confidence interval from the regression model to estimate the distance until which the dog would effectively detect a faecal sample, defined as the perpendicular distance value where the lower 95% confidence interval was 0. Overall the dog detected 29% of our experimental faecal samples. We found a clear linear decline in detections with 57, 44 and 17% of the samples detected at perpendicular distances of 0, 3 and 6 meters, respectively and no samples were detected at the other distances. The effective perpendicular search distance estimated from the lower 95% confidence interval of the linear regression model (R2 adj=0.9762, F1,2 =124.2, P = 0.008) was 7.2 meters. We rounded this value to 7 meters, providing a strip width of 14 m. Therefore by multiplying the total distance walked by the strip width, we calculated the sampling area of the field surveys as 54.6 ha for the dog team and 39.0 ha for human observers. Human observers did not detect any deer faeces; however deer tracks were recorded on 24 separate occasions. In comparison, the dog detected a total of 8 faecal samples, providing a detection success of 0.15 samples/ha or 0.21 samples/km for the dog team. This dog sampling success in the Paranapiacaba ecological continuum is lower than that reported from North America, for example in the Carrizo Plain National Monument and in the LoKern Natural Area, both in California, scat dogs detected from 0.43 to 5.37 presumptive kit fox (Vulpes macrotis mutica) faecal samples/km (SMITH etal. 2003). It is important to point out that the dogs’ detection success in Paranapiacaba could have been higher. The warm and humid weather in Carlos Botelho State Park may have negatively influenced the dogs’ ability to detect scats as odour particles do not disperse at high moisture levels and high temperatures increase canid panting rates (SMITH et al. 2003, WASSER et al. 2004), which reduces sniffing rates and therefore limits scat detection. Another factor that could explain the lower success in Paranapiacaba is the fact that herbivore faeces have a weaker odour compared with those of the carnivores surveyed in the other studies (SMITH et al. 2003, WASSER et al. 2004, SMITH et al. 2005, HARRISON 2006, LONG et al. 2007, REED et al. 2011). For the first time we demonstrated how important a scat detection dog was to obtain faecal samples, which would otherwise be missed by human researchers in the Neotropics. Although the dog did not follow a fixed path and may therefore miss samples close to the trail, we found that the overall area that is effectively covered more than compensates for these losses. This is particularly true for deer faecal pellets which are easily missed by human observers especially when covered by leaf litter on the forest floor. 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Figure legend: Study area showing locations of human and scat detection dog survey trails in the Paranapiacaba Continuum, São Paulo, Brazil Figure 1  | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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