Translation theory. Objects, aims and methods of anal

Re-patterning II bc of difference in the theme-rheme organization=>a number of other transformations:a)changes in the order of sentences, e.g. Photographers came. The tragedy had interested the local press. - Трагедия заинтересовала местную прессу. Пришли фотографы

Omissions result in dropping some elements from a SLT which may be caused by a number of factors: 1) the difference in combinability of SL and TL, The treaty was declared null and void-Договор был объявлен недействительным. 2) well-established traditions of expressing some information, Eng-detailed descriptions which is redundant in Rus and are usually replaced by their functional analogues, e.g. Every inch of his face expressed amazement - На его лице было написано изумление. 3) the desire to create compression in an English sentence which is often achieved thanks to frequent uses of participial, infinitival, gerundial phrases, complex object, complex subject and other complexes, e.g. Как сообщается, свыше 30 автомашин застряли в пути на 12 часов из-за снежных заносов - More than 30 cars are said to have stuck twelve hours in snow drifts. Omissions are more frequently made while translating from R. into E. in contrast to additions that are usual when translating from E. into R.

General defin – nouns used to name a certain person, place or thing. Until recently they didn’t enter dics as t-rs thought they are untranslatable. 1)proper ns – heterogeneous system: pers ns, pet ns, diminutive, endearing; geogr; institutions, etc

2)can be t-ed following well-est tradition(monarchy, biblical) and acc to modern demand. Shall not be mixed not to create dublets.(may depend on the nationality of the bearer: hugo – Хьюго – Гюго.

Personal names – 2 groups depending on their translation: those translated according to tradition and those translated in keeping with the modern tendency.

Pet ns used to - !)characterize a person in ? 2)express interpersonal distances 3)show the attitude. Can be expressed implicitly or explicitly. When translating – var means (Shorty – Коротышка; Scout – Глазастик; Матрёшенька – tiny Matreshka). Firms, ships, newpapers – transcribed. ./// Organizations, societies – loan translated: Фонд обязательного мед страхования – Obligatory Medical Insurance Fund. /// Geogr and microtoponyms – depending on several factors: 1)type of nomination – 1 word or multi-word. 2)structure of multi-word complexes. 1) – transliterated(Giblartar – Гиблартар) 2) a)transcribed and/or transliterated (Downing steet – Даунинг-Стрит) b)t-ed – Cape of the Good Hope – Мыс Доброй Надежды.c)both – Bull lake – озеро Булл Лэйк.

26. Handling E noun phrases with multiple pre-mods in T.

Often used in publicistic, bc of great packaging of info (a take-it-or-leave-it resolution), academic, bc it have terminological character (electric equipment supply) and in fiction for emotional & expressive properties (a-please-leave-me-alone expression). A lot of dif. bw R & E. in m-g, form & usage. Semantic structure: 1)polysemy of w-g due to polysemy of pattern (Washington support); 2)broad range of semantic relations bw elements (war expenditure – relations of purpose; war heroes – qualifying rel.).

2)sem analysis usually moves from left to right, but it often produces ambiguous results due to a wide range of meaning relationships when the exact relationship is not explicit;

3)t-n The world's first \ push-button controlled \ solid fuel \ central heating system - первая в мире центральная отопительная система на твёрдом топливе, имеющая кнопочное управление. T-n left to right. T-ed by:1)equiv(random sampling)2)borrow:transcr,loan3)variants(pink eleph-бред алког.;чертики в глазах)4)descrip.(wage deadlock)

27. International and pseudo-international words in t-n.

IW – w-s of identical origin that occur in several langs as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from 1 ultimate source. PIW–coincide just in outer form, not in m-g.

Var dics on such words appeared recently.

Akulenko: 3 groups: 1)inter-lang relative synonyms.(Coincide partially in their m-g & usage)

2)=//= homonyms(in sound or graphical form)

3)=//= paronyms(partially alike in form, arouse false association in m-g)

Discrepancies: 1)a)denotational comp.(agony – Ru w. has 1 m-g, En – 4) b)dif-ce in combinability (absolutely agree – без возражений; vanish abs.- полностью исчезнуть).

c)in connot comp.(consultation(neutral) –консультация (bookish)).

2)nothing in common: actual-актуальный; translate-транслировать(broadcast, transmit)

3)intellectual – интелегентский.

Borisova – t-n of scientific w-s in Ru: 1)specialization of an En general w. (companion device – вспомогательное устройство. 2)de-internationalization(the best compromise – оптимальное соотношение. 3) stylistic neutralization (microprocessor’s talents – потенциальные возможности)


28 Rendering words having no equivalences.

Broad – var units which do not have corresp in TL for dif. reasons(neologisms, rare geogr ns). Narrow – w-s that denote cultural concepts which can be further subdivided into classes depending on their extraling reference(ethnographic, mythological, political).

2 types if dics: traditional – translational w/ only ling info; New type of encyclopedic di-ries w/ a lot of background info: GB linguaculturestudy Dic-ry, Lonman Dic of En Lang & Culture, MED gor Advance Learners.

2) analogues (Highway Code – ПДД)

3) descriptive (brunch – поздний завтрак в выходные)

4) combined (borrowed+explanatory: blue chip – выгодные акции компании)

The examples show that in the vast majority of cases the so-called background information which may not be known to a TL reader is supplied in the form of additional comment that contains various data related to the following:

1. 
   origin, e.g. college pudding - пудинг «колледж;»; предполагают, что такие пудинги впервые подавали в Нью-Колледже.
   
2. 
   quotations, e.g. winter of discontent — «зима недовольства»; цитата из «Ричарда Ш» Шекспира.
   

1)phraseological units (PlU) – a smart Aleck 2)Semi-idioms (SI) – chain reaction 3)Phraseomatic units (PmU) – pay attention.

1)Sem structure is complicated: denot m-g, imagery component;emotive charge;stylistic ref.;evaluative comp.

T-r sh preserves all components, but it’s not easy as they are nationally specific(for a rainy day – на черный день-image).

2)polysemy of many set expr.(fun&games-веселье;весёленькая работка).3)form alike, m-g-dif.(lead smb by his nose – водить за нос).4)similar,but not identical(lose one's head(mind)-потерять голову(сойти с ума))5)can resemble a non-idiomatic expr.(go in couples).

To phraseological correspondences: a)Phras 1)equiv(kill time-убивать время) 2)analogue - dif.image (w/ naked eye – невооруж. глазом.) 3)selected synonym (pay the devil(coll) – сам черт ногу сломит(coll) – трудная задача(neut)) 4)antonymic t-n (don’t count chicks bf.. hatched).

Term is a language unit that has a strictly limited sense in a particular branch of human knowledge or practical activity, the translator should bear in mind important properties of terms: 1) terms must be systemic; 2) they must be independent of a context: 3)they must be, ideally, monosemantic; 4) terms must have precise definitions: 5) terms must he brief;6) they must be stylistically neutral.

2 groups of dictionaries: 1) traditional translation linguistic dictionaries of terms(linguistic information connected with synonyms, peculiarities of form, derivation, combinability); 2)explanatory conceptual translation dictionaries of terms(conceptual information about respective notions) -Explanatory English-Russian Dictionary of Currency and Credit Terms' by B.V.Fedorov

Eng=>Rus: 1)equivalents, e.g. mortgage note - ипотечная ценная бумага (one-level full equivalents); 2)variant correspondences duty — налог, сбор; таможенная пошлина;3) borrowed translation - a) transliteration: eurocredit - еврокредит,.b) transcription - on-line - он­лайн (прямая связь с компьютером компании); c) loan-translation - asset play - игра активами; 4) periphrastic explanations - floor trader - член биржи, непосредственно участвующий в торге за свой счёт; 5) decoding as a means of handling a shortening that is translated in a different place of the dictionary, e.g. D-mark - Deutsche mark -немецкая марка. 6) combined translation: a) borrowed translation + equivalent; b) borrowed translation + periphrastic explanation, e.g. spot market -рынок «спот»: рынок реальных финансовых инструментов в отличие от рынка срочных контрактов;

Dif. types of transformations: 1)concretizing of meaning, e.g. cabinet crowd - кабинетные дилеры; 2)generalization of meaning, e.g. competitive trader - член фондовой биржи в Нью Иорке 3)additions_? e.g. trade date — дата заключения или исполнения сделки. 4) omissions - annual reports and accounts - годовой отчёт компании,5) grammatical substitutions annual accounts - годовая отчётность.

31. Difficulties inherent in translating neologisms.

Neos – at the time of their appearance are treated as words that have no ready correspond-s in TL, but with time due too intense international contacts are rendered in dif. ways.

Neos – new lex units used to name new objects or phenomena of reality, or new m-gs of already existing w-s, or new names given to familiar notions or obects.

Most frequent in: publicistic materials; technical texts; coll. speech. Some of them are short lived, some are then registered in dics(first in dics of new words, then in parallel). Problem – when nowhere yet registered. T-r has to solve 2 tasks: 1)make out the m-g; 2)make he correct choice of rendering it in TL./// Rozen – 3 types:

1)Neos proper –new both in form&content

2)semantic innovations – new m-gs of existing w-s.

3)transformations – new names of existing notions.

Analysis: 1)derivational (esp. for proper neos: skategate); 2)semantic (esp. w/ sem innov.: visitation - visitation is used in a situation where parents an divorced, an occasion when one parent is allowed to spend time with their children who are living with the other parent or the right to do this, e.g visitation rights.); 3)contextual (w/ any type: call me on cell)/// Ways of t-n: 1)transcription(-liter)-overdraft 2)loan t-n(BR community – спал. район) 3)analogues(lead-footed-тугодум) 4)descrip.(commercial-рекл.по ТВ) 5)combined – golf widow

32. Modal component in textual info. Renderin modality.

M-is connected with all kinds of personal evaluation. Can be objective & subjective. Narrow s – expression the m-g of reality or unreality. Br.s – all aspects of subjective attitudes, incl.speaker’s attitude to the content, to addressee, evalution of situation. M is expressed in the following ways:

Ru=>En:

En=>Ru

Modal and semi-modal verbs in an English text are sometimes not translated at all, cf. Well, you never can tell, said Hurstwood. - Как вам сказать, -ответил Герствуд

At the pre-textual level all gram.phenomena in Eng&Rus to 2 classes: those found only in one of the two l-ges(gram.lacunae) and those found in both l-ges(partially).

Cases of grammatical lacunae:1) a gram.category doesn’t exist in SL, but it is compulsory in TL. Rus=>Eng-to make an appropriate choice of the article,the continuous/non-continuous,perfect/non-perfect(Синие глаза его блестели возбуждённо. - His dark blue eyes were glittering with excitement). Eng=>Rus-indicate the gender of the nouns, choose the perfective or non-perfective forms(After dinner I sat and waited for Pyle in my room. - После ужина я сидел у себя в комнате и дожидался Паша. 2) A gram.category is obligatory in SL, but it is absent in TL. Rus=>Eng- to render Rus verbal adverbial phrases, indefinite personal sentences, etc, e.g. И маленьким литератором приятно быть в конце концов. - It must be quite nice to be a very minor writer, eh, what? Eng=>Rus-to render functions of the articles, complex object, absolute participle constructions, perfect forms of the infinitive. Etc(I heard her put a tray down on the end of the bed.

Cases of partial coincidence:1) gram.forms differ in the range of their meanings(Rus. мог=Eng might(Past)but it-SubjII Pr;2) gram.category in Eng&Rus with the same meaning, but gram.forms don’t coincide(money (sing) - деньги (pl.)3) gram.category in Eng&Rus,its meanings and forms correlate, but dif.Styl.effect(Pas.Voice): It would have damaged Anglo-American relations, the Minister would have been upset. - Ведь это нанесло бы вред англо-американским отношениям и расстроило бы посланника.

(34) Translation problems at textual level.

T-r sh pay attn. bc he is supposed to underst. the charac. and type of the text; apply respective criteria for evaluative t-n.

Fedorov: 1)informative, documentary & scientific texts;

2)socio-political texts; 3)literary & fiction texts.

Her types: 1)content oriented texts: (news, commercial letters, specif.docs, user’s manuals, official docs, reports…)

Article – yes in E, no – in R.=>problems.

When E=>R – we have to find compensatory means to render the f-ns of E art.

R=>E –choose proper art. consider-g var. ling & extra factors.

Def.art. f-ns:

1)pure gram f-n a)dropped(the white house);

b)by dif. morph.means(the poor – бедняки)+lex(the Smiths)

2)thematic role a)synt means – w-order(There was a knock on the door); b)var lex means(under the circumstances – при сложившихся обс-ах) с)combi – gram+lexical.

3)demonstrative force:a)demostr.pronouns(этот,та)

b)adj.,adverbs.

Indef.art.:

1)synt means – w-order.

2)numerals, indef. pronouns(один,некий,какая-то) Often it’s possible to restructure in imperson.sent in R.(when you hear a man – когда кто-то говорит)

3)emphatic pronouns and adj-s are used to replace an indef.art. used for emphasis (This White House is a prison – Этот белый дом – сущая тюрьма)

36. English absolute nominative constructions. 3 main problems: 1) of their identification, 2) of semantic connection between an absolute construction and the rest of the sentence, 3) choice of compensatory means.

I)1)abs.part.nom.cons-s(She stood up, her face smiling); 2)abs.nom.cons-s with a participle implied(The lecture over, we left the hall);3)abs.nom. cons-ns by a"with/without"(I can't work with that noise going on); 4)abs.nom.part.non-subject constructions(Being remarkably fine and agreeable in their manner, Oliver thought them very nice girls indeed.)

II) semantic analysis reveals their functions(adv.modifiers): 1)of manner/attending circumstances(He leaned forward, his head supported on his clenched fists); 2)of time(The duty done, they left the place); 3)of cause/ result(The heat in the room, with all the windows shut, was intense);4)of condition(With everyone working, it made a nice pool against the winter).

III)The choice of compensatory means in Russian depends on the type of logical subject:

a)coincides with the gram.subject of the sentence: 1)a verbal adverb phrase(He was so odd, standing there, so aggressive, bottle in hand and test-tube in the other); 2)an independent sentence(Finally she stood back and looked at him, her face smiling); 3)a subordinate clause(At once her face was cool again, the shyness back); 4)a prepositional phrase(With a sigh of relief she walked out, her head held high)

b) is not the same as the subject of the sentence: 1)a subordinate clause(Lord Steyne's visits continuing his own ceased); 2)an independent sentence(She blew him a kiss and then she was out the door, her handbag swinging on her wrist like a pendulum.); 3)a prepositional phrase(She was living with her invalid aunt who had brought her up, her parents being dead)

1)formal gram and synt str-re 2)communic. – theme (given), rheme (new). Problem of rendering R w-o in En. (the problems of rendering the communicative structure of an utterance)

If monorhematic=>Take rheme from R sentence and put it in the beginning of E sentence (first comes first) + an indef. art.– на улице появилась толпа зевак – a crowd of idlers appeared on the street.

If dirhematic: 1)find boundaries of the theme and state its synt func-n.

2)if the theme is adv.mod it has to be transformed into subject. (Из-за тумана остановилось движение – the fog stopped the traffic)

3)if direct obj=>into subj + Active-Passive transf-n.( Музыку к этому фильму написал известный композитор. - The music to the film was composed by a famous composer)

4)if indir obj=>=//= Мне предложили другую должность. - / was offered a different job.

5)if begins with thematic verbs, then following transfor.:

a)=>it b)=>there c)=>noun

(Вошли в практику совещания экспертов – It has become common practice/there have been arrangements/Our reg activities)

В комнате установилась мёртвая тишина:The room turned deathly silent.(monorhematic), A deathly silence descended upon the room. (dirhematic)

E=>R. change in w-o in E even more emphatic as it’s unusual

1)fronting(This I say);2)subj-verb Then came the turning point of the match.

Means:1)synt restructuring(смертельно больной, он)2)Lex-phras m-ns;3)Special intensifiers(Bitterly did he – сколько горечи!)

Type 1: 1) PartI ind(Отмахнул черные рукава. И, широко осенив его крестом, начал читать отходную - Не thrust back his black sleeves and, making the sign of the cross over the dying man, began to recite the prayer for the departed); 2)a finite form(Фома, выждав, когда кончат браниться^ проговорил опять. .- Foma waited till they had stopped cursing and said once more); 3)PartII or participial phrase(разгорячась от водки с чесноком, Михаила заложил у целовальника и саблю и пояс. - warmed by vodka and garlic, Mikhail pawned the sabre and belt with the innkeeper); 4)A gerundial phrase(Он..,не ударив ее, выскочил на улицу. - Не … without actually striking her, rushed out into the street);5)PartII perfect(Обогнав её, он приотворил высокую дверь и скрылся за нею. - Having overtaken her, he opened a big door and vanished behind it.)

Present in both langs. Differences: 1)in character: R can form passive with limited # of verbs(transitive), while E has much broader choice of verbs(even intransitive – run a hotel)

2)in the functions: a)when smth is acted upon smb E favours Passive while R–inversioned order(direct obj.-pred-subj); b)R impersonal sent => E Passive;

c)verbs of judgement, 3^rd person(полагают) =>E Passive.

In English the passive voice subject: a)point at the agent of the verbal action; b)indicate the recipient of an action; c)show the locality of an action; d)stress the effect of some event on smth; e)indicate the event (eventive subject)

3)in the uses

In Eng passive constructions are frequently used in academic prose, in news, in conversation where they tend to be stative in their meaning.

In R restricted to official docs use only.

Correlation. Type 1: was written – было написано

Dif-ces: 1)stylistic: R – bookish

2)subj(pas) is stressed, the doer +by in E; while Active in R

Type 2: E passive correlates with R intransitive

1)active v. +кто-то

2)indef personal sentence

3)indef personal sentence with verbs of speaking(Как передают)

4)infinit. sent. (nothing is to be seen – ничего ни видать

5)verbs with reflexive –ся (фильм снимается)

6)impers sent with predicate (He has been ordered to return. - Ему приказано вернуться.)

7)impers sent + modal verbs (нужно покончить – must be done away with)

comprehensive grammar: 1) tense-past and present time orientation, aspect the completion or lack of completion; 2) there are two marked aspect forms in English: the perfect and the continuous +present and past of both.

Catford points out that the Russian imperfective писал denoting either an action in progress or a repetitive action can equally frequently be translated into English by both the unmarked form wrote and the marked form was writing, while the marked members in both languages написал (denoting a single accomplished action) - was writing (denoting an action in process) are mutually untranslatable.

Translation difficulties:1)absence of equivalent relations;2) additional means-aspectual verbs;3) division into term. and dur. and influences the choice of marked and unmarked in TL;4) the existence of the so-called aspectual partners in Rus(писал-написал);5) lex meaning of the aspectual forms in Rus.

The ways of translating the Rus imperf готовила:1) Mother was cooking fish when I came home (the action in process at a given moment in the past).2) When I came home there was no one in but I knew at once mother had been cooking fish (the action was in progress before a given situation).3)Mother cooked fish on Thursdays (repeated action).

The perf.forms: 1)single-a)beg-g: She burst out laughing (Past Simple);b)moment- The child turned pale(lex.means);c)completed-the sun has set;2) repeated- то кто-нибудь придёт-people keep coming in(lex)

E=>R.4 groups of tense-aspect:

1)perfect(=>perf.(single accom-d), imperf(repetitive)),

2)continuous(=>imperf(for planned future or in the given moment), perf(for future)),

3)perfect continuous(=>imperf.( in progress for the period before a given sit-n or continued into it), perf),

4)indefinite(=>imperf.(recurrent actions), perf(a single past action)).

(44)Translating texts (technical, scientific, newspaper, publicistic, diplomatic, etc) which are written in accordance with the accepted standards in SL he has not only to solve translation problems that arise at the level of elements and segments of a text, but also to pay attention to categories that exist on the level of a text. One of the most essential features of any text is functional style.

According to prof. I.R. Galperin a functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. functional styles are: 1)the language of belles-lettres, 2)the language of publicistic literature, 3)of newspapers, 4)of scientific prose and 5)the language of official documents. The division of the literary standard of any language into functional styles is important to take into account in translation for several reasons: 1)any SL text that has to be translated into TL can be referred to this or that functional style that must be retained in translation; 2)though the types of functional styles may correlate in SL and TL their linguistic peculiarities do not coincide fully; 3)functional styles reflect norms, rules of speech etiquette of a given lingo-cultural community.

In modern linguistics a new approach (van Th.Deiik, A.P.Chudinov) is based on their analysis in terms of discourse. A discourse as distinct from a text is dynamic and is understood as the process of creating a text in certain conditions, for a certain purpose, with a certain intention, by participants of a certain linguacultural community in keeping with the norms accepted in it.

V.L.Naer: the newspaper style proper vs the publicistic style qualifying the newspaper style as an informative style.

I.V.Arnold: the newspaper style possesses a set of style-forming features.

G.Ya.Solganik: a single newspaper-publicistic style within which lexicon comprises groups of units with various stylistic colouring.

V.N.Komissarov divides all newspaper materials into 4 groups: 1)informative and descriptive,2)publicistic,3)official and business,4)scientific and technical.

Th.Van Deiik singles out the following elements in the structure of an English article: headline - by-line - the leading paragraph (the leads) - the body of the article. All the parts of an article are interdependent both structurally and functionally.

1. 
   to draw the reader's attention to what is described in a newspaper,
   
2. 
   to give the gist of the matter by summing up the content of an article,
   
3. 
   to convince the reader of the point of view expressed in an article,
   
4. 
   to prepare the reader for an adequate reaction to what is described
   

Rus=>Eng

1. 
   replace Russian noun phrases: a) N1(process) + N2(agent)=>N2–subj, N1–predicate (Открытие навигации); b) N1(process) + N2(object)=>N2-subject, N1-Part.II
   
2. 
   current events: a) sentences of various communicative types;b) Pr.Cont.
   
3. 
   future events: a) by using sentences;b) by infinitive with the link-verb
   
4. 
   past events:a) by using sentences;b) by historical Present(victim dies)
   
5. 
   drop fun-al w.(Сенсационная находка - Nazi Papers Found in Attics)
   
6. 
   restore all vital info to make it 'tell the story'(В тревожном ожидании - Three department stores will close by September)
   
7. 
   Context bound transformations of addition(Предстоящая конференция - Physical Conference to Open in Moscow)
   

The formal (grammatical) demands of translation observed in the leads are as follows:

1) arrange the content of the lead according to the following pattern:

Eng - who?- (did) what?- where? when?-why? - how?

Rus - when?- where? - (did) what? - who?( Вчера на заседании кабинета министров Англии было объявлено о планах сокращения на 20% расходов на социальные программы. - Plans for a 20% cut in spending on social needs were announced at the meeting of the British cabinet of ministers yesterday)

2) M-S (Eng) vs S-M (Rus): как заявил X — X said;как сообщается из X — it is reported from X;как сообщают из X — it is reported from X;

согласно заявлению X — according to X

3)Rus.adv.mod-er=>Eng.subj.(В совместном заявлении подчёркнуто -

The joint statement stresses)

4)Leave out redundant information(Реакционные силы пытаются помешать установлению взаимопонимания Между Востоком и Западом. - The reactionaries are out to hinder East-West understanding)

When translating from Eng into Rus – addition to keep with the norms оf the newspaper writing in Rus.( The settlement may be considered to be of primary importance to a number of home industries. - Можно считать, что заключение этого соглашения будет иметь решающее значение для ряд;» отраслей отечественной промышленности.)

(47) V.G.Kostomarov stresses two opposite trends:the repetitiveness of language means used and the expressiveness.

Dif-ties: 1)the core of newspaper lexis is constituted by standard well-established cliches but the bulk of standard newspaper lexis are nationally specific(производство на душу населения - per capita production

мыслить по-современному - to think along modern lines история подтверждает - history bears out). a)avoid "cultural shock"-Проблема отцов и детей-The generation gap;b) peculiar connotations in SL that offer difficulties for TLreaders(silent majority-молчаливое большинство)

2)E=>R: stylistically marked vocabulary by neutral units(axed-отклонил, показуха — show-off)

3) neologisms(получать тринадцатую зарплату - to get a 13' pay packet)

4) a) universal shortenings(GATT,IMF,VAT);b) nationally specific shortenings-ГКО (государственные краткосрочные облигации) - short-term Government bonds (treasury bills, government securities with a fixed interest rate)

5) Eng-dimin. and fanciful forms of ref. to politicians;Rus-not(ВВП,БАБ, Maggy,Gorbi)

6) to retain a stylistic effect(He is soaring into his world of fantasy-Но он предпочитает летать в облаках)

R=>E (rendering the meanings of linga-cultural concepts)

The analysis of Rus neologisms-three main sources of their appearance:1)neologisms formed after productive patterns of Russian (чернобылец);2)neologisms borrowed from other languages(таймшер (time-share);3)neologisms described as inner borrowings(отмазывать).

Translation solutions:a) transcription /transliteration(префект — prefect); b)loan-translation(личное подсобное хозяйство - individual subsidiary holding);c)equivalent(утечка мозгов - brain-drain);d)analogues(общепит -public catering facilities);e)variant(отмывание денег-hot moneyrecycling

f)explanatory(дерьмократ - shitty democrat); g)combined translation(bor.tr-n+expl.= черный нал - black cash)

(48) Componential method relate to the analysis and interpretation of meaning hence the findings of this semasiological procedure were heavily relied upon in attempts to throw light upon semantics of correlated words in the two languages. The supporters of the componential analysis of meaning (J.J. Katz, J.A. Fodor, M. Bierwisch,) proceed from the assumption that the smallest units of lexical meaning in correlated words of any two languages seldom coincide in their quality, number. This model of translation singles out several stages in the process of translation including (a) establishing in SLT elementary units of content, (b) analyzing their componential structure which is then followed by (c) looking for such correspondences in a TL. The equivalence of two texts is understood here as being measured on the basis of semantic equivalence of their elements.

a) correlated words may differ in the quality, number and arrangement of semantic components (изба-hut)

b) correlated synonymic sets may differ in the number and semantic peculiarities of their members

c) Combinability of correlated words in the two languages where the difference often stems from the dissimilarities in their semantic structures (issue)

d) Correlated semantic / conceptual fields may not coincide in SL and TL (purple)

49) Situational model of translation (J. Catford, V.G. Gak) was developed under the influence of linguistic views of major British scholars (J. Firth, A.K. Halliday) who argued that every human language possesses its own systems of meaning understood as a matrix of relations into which this or that unit enters. Translation should not be understood as a mere transfer of meanings as different languages often use different sets of semantic components to describe the same or similar situations. Semantic equivalence of a SLT and a TLT is established not on the basis of respective sets of semantic components, but on the basis of identity of the situation described in the two languages. It must be stressed that a situation is understood as objects of reality and relations between them described in an utterance, but not as a speech context in which an act of communication takes place. According to V.G. Gak, there are five kinds of semantic changes in the ways of naming an object including synonymic substitutions, antonymic translation, semantic processes of expansion or narrowing, as well as the process of transfer. This model is reliable when comparing similar ways of describing the same situation despite various other differences:

1. 
   the difference in word-building resources of SL and TL, e.g. It is convenient for a money-losing factory to blame suppliers for its own fault. - Плохо работающему производству удобно винить смежников.
   
2. 
   The difference in well established ways of describing a given situation in the two languages, e.g. There is no knowing what may happen. - Нельзя знать, что может случиться.
   

(50) Cultural-semiotic approach to translation is based, on the one hand, on R. Jacobson's works that initiated a semiotic turn on the borderline of translation studies and cultural semiotics. These works show mat meaning can be lent to any kind of translation activity, methodologically the semiotic tradition has been characterized by bringing the concepts of meaning, interpretation and translation close to one another. These scholars put together inter-linguistic, intra-linguistic and intersemiotic translations which was crucial not only for translation studies, but also for developing the general notion of culture as the process of total translation. On the other hand, translation viewed as a working mechanism of culture is connected with semiotics of culture and thus it follows the traditions of M. Makhtin and J. Lotman. M. Bakhtin introduced the notion of dialogism in analyzing the language of literature which was further applied to « translation text as a place for two different logics of two different languages to meet in. It is very important to stress that this model has two important advantages compared to other theories: firstly, bringing semiotics into linguistics it broadened the boundaries of human communication, viewing a text as a code instead of looking at a text as a message produced on the basis of language alone it enabled to reconstruct cultural codes in their diversity and simultaneity