The Ecological and Socio-Economic Impacts of Invasive Alien Species on Island Ecosystems: Report of an Experts Consultation Contents

ANNEX VII: Fouling of Marine Ecosystems by Invasive Alien Species:

A Call to Action

Background

• 
  Declines in commercial and recreational fisheries
  

• 
  The comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi contributed to the complete collapse of kilka (anchovy) fisheries in the Black Sea.
  
• 
  The Northern Pacific Sea star Asterias amurensis is having a drastic economic effect on the shellfish industry in Tasmania.
  

• 
  Losses of aesthetic values and tourist income
  

• 
  The seaweed Gracilaria salicornia washes ashore, polluting Waikiki Beach in Hawai’i and a single alga species, Kappaphycus, has replaced spectacular coral reef communities in Kaneohe Bay.
  
• 
  Snowflake octocoral Carijoa riisei from the Caribbean now forms single species masses among black coral in Hawai’i hindering recruitment.
  

• 
  Threats to human health
  

• 
  Dinoflagellates have been introduced in ballast water and have caused toxic "red tides" that poison fish and people who eat them.
  

• 
  Animal health
  

• 
  Introduced parasites and diseases that have caused mortality in native marine mammal populations.
  

On 18-19 October 2002, the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) brought together an international team of experts (see Annex) in Honolulu, Hawai’i, to design an assessment of the biological and socio-economic impacts of invasive alien species on island ecosystems, including their marine environments.³

More than 45,000 registered cargo ships (Llyod’s Register, 2000) and hundreds of thousands of recreational craft travel the world’s seas. Hundreds of species are transported either by ballast water contained in these vessels or as "hitchhikers" attached to the ships (i.e., fouling organisms). Nearly any form of movable marine equipment can serve as a means of transport for fouling organisms; from barges and drilling platforms, to fishing and diving gear, to tools for scientific research and marine debris.

Most ships docking at small islands arrive full of cargo and leave empty, taking on water for ballast while discharging cargo. This makes most Small Island Developing States (SIDS) exporters of ballast water, not recipients. Therefore, hull fouling is their most important pathway for the introduction of marine IAS.

The Call

The participants of the expert consultation call upon governments, inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations, industries, and other relevant bodies to:

• 
  Raise awareness of the problem of fouling by IAS with governments, relevant industries, tourists and recreationists, and local communities (especially those closely associated with coral reefs).
  
• 
  Develop and enact best management practices and policies to physically clean ships hulls and marine equipment so as to minimize the risk of transport of fouling organisms.
  
• 
  Develop environmentally sound alternatives to the toxic anti-fouling agents that are gradually being removed from use.
  
• 
  Establish surveillance programs to detect and penalties for "polluters" who introduce IAS via fouling.
  
• 
  Establish early detection and rapid response programs with an aim to eradicate IAS before they can become established and spread.
  
• 
  Support and undertake studies of fouling as an invasion pathway, as well as the biological and socio-economic impacts of fouling organisms on marine ecosystems.
  

1. 
   Fundamental research on the basis of insect-plant specificity at the biochemical and ecological level. Rationale: Biological control is highly valuable in the control of established plant invasions on islands, where resources are often not available for physical control, but insect agents have to be highly specific to avoid damaging endemic native flora. However little is known about the biology of specificity.
   

2. 
   Bioinventory. Despite islands having small and tractable biotas, the bioinventory is far from complete on many, especially when it comes to invertebrates. On islands, more than on any other system, complete bioinventory is achievable. Rationale: for detailed understanding of invasive impacts, complete bioinventory is desirable. Also, bioinventory in source regions (for little known invertebrate groups in particular) will aid understanding of pathways of invasion.
   

3. 
   Research on how to incorporate stochastic processes that may be important in the early stages of invasion into population models. Rationale: Better population modelling may lead to resolution of the problem that at present we cannot predict which introductions will become successful invaders. Most introductions do not become invasive.
   

4. 
   Where within the range of a species do invasive island populations come from? Rationale: An understanding of the genesis of IAS from within the population variation of a species, will lead to increased understanding and prediction of IAS, and the identification of high risk provenances which should be kept out of islands at risk, even if they have non-invasive provenances.
   

5. 
   Invasion of non-pathogenic microorganisms in ecosystems are little understood or known because of the difficulty of studying them. Rationale: In sensitive macrobiota-poor ecosystems such as sub-Antarctic islands, environmental microorganisms may constitute a very important ecosystem-altering invasion threat. Baseline studies of microorganisms on islands are needed, as well as studies of invasion by microorganisms.
   

6. 
   The science of identifying and quantifying ecosystem services is in its infancy, and better methods are needed. Rationale: Protection of ecosystem services is particularly important on islands which have limited resources. Quantification of ecosystem services is important for prioritisation, understanding of impacts.
   

7. 
   Methods of social science research need to be applied to identifying community value and ways of involving communities. Rationale: Communities are often small on islands easing community communication but also making conflict avoidance especially important.
   

8. 
   More ecological experiments, in the form of perturbations, field trials or “adaptive management”, need to be undertaken to improve sustainable management regimes. Rationale: Lack of experimental data is a significant cause of conservation failure in managing IAS on islands. Experiments are particularly difficult to do on islands as they are often difficult to access by researchers and consequently experimental data is often lacking.
   

9. 
   Improved knowledge of species interactions, food webs and competitive relations are needed for specific island system in relation to proposed management actions. Rationale: Improved knowledge of interactions will lead to better prediction of biocontrol outcomes, and prevention of ‘cascading’ effects within ecosystems (invasive meltdown). On islands in particular a “holistic” approach involving all elements of these discrete systems is possible and desirable.
   

10. 
    Retrospective and continuing studies of biocontrol are needed. Too often valuable data is
    

11. 
    Better knowledge of invasion risk and patterns of spread are needed to prioritize species for management and reduce uncertainty through higher quality data and modelling. In particular: what are the minimum thresholds for the initial population size of an introduction for a successful invasion (single gravid female, or more?). Rationale: Uncertainty poses considerable difficulty for policy-makers, and greater quantification will lead to more decision prevention policy.
    

1. Purpose of assessment

1. 
   Driven by CBD: called for by Parties because it was recognized as being so urgent.
   
2. 
   Why islands? (Elton’s book, Vitousek’s model)
   

1. 
   Islands represent a level of transformation in the last 500 years
   
2. 
   Extraordinary opportunity – constrained size, bounded by water, model system for other ecological systems
   
3. 
   Pathway analysis
   
4. 
   Success stories as exemplars
   
5. 
   Islands are at the forefront of global change. IAS may exaggerate any other global change impacts
   

3. 
   Definition of impacts
   

1. 
   Intended for policy-makers (CBD report)
   

1. 
   Invasive alien species defined
   
2. 
   Islands defined
   
3. 
   Causes of biological invasion (1/2 page, well cited)
   

1. 
   Pathways
   
2. 
   Intentional/unintentional
   
3. 
   Facilitation
   

4. 
   History, status, and trends of island invasions
   

1. 
   History and trends
   
   1. 
      Asian/Polynesian migration
      
   2. 
      What happens once an island becomes a colony?
      

• 
  Compare fate of islands under different colonizers
  
• 
  Colonization of Mauritius and Madagascar (Ask John Mauremootoo)
  
• 
  Perception by Europeans that island plants of little value
  
• 
  How does that vary (species, pathways) by who is colonizing (see Green Imperialism, Seeds of Change)?
  

3. 
   Current Status – the vast number of islands have been subjected to radical change, however there are a few small islands (e.g., Henderson, Christmas Island) that are in reasonably good shape.
   

1. Overview: Impacts defined and how they can be assessed

1. 
   Genetic diversity
   
   1. 
      Case studies
      
2. 
   Species
   
   1. 
      Case studies
      
3. 
   Habitats/communities
   
   1. 
      Case studies
      
4. 
   Ecosystems
   
   1. 
      Case studies
      

**Geographic location: Indian Ocean, temperate

***Taxa: plants, vertebrates, invertebrates, microbes
2. Summary of available data

1. 
   Established points
   
2. 
   Uncertainties
   
3. 
   Future needs
   
4. 
   Opportunities (e.g., existing mechanisms that could be applied)
   

1. Overview

1. 
   Fisheries
   
   2. 
      Agriculture
      
   3. 
      Tourism
      
   4. 
      Human health
      
   5. 
      Conflict
      
   6. 
      Human migration
      

2. Summary of available data

1. 
   Established points
   
2. 
   Uncertainties
   
3. 
   Future needs
   
4. 
   Opportunities
   

**Geographic location: Indian Ocean, temperate

***Taxa: plants, vertebrates, invertebrates, microbes

D-2: Integration of biological and socio-economic impacts

1. 
   Setup statement to mitigation
   

E. Mitigation of Impacts

1. 
   Principles
   
   1. 
      Prevention
      
   2. 
      Early detection and rapid response
      
   3. 
      Eradication
      
   4. 
      Control
      
   5. 
      Restoration
      
2. 
   Practices unique to islands
   
   1. 
      Prevention
      
   2. 
      Early detection and rapid response
      
   3. 
      Eradication
      
   4. 
      Control
      

1. 
   Established points
   
2. 
   Uncertainties
   
3. 
   Future needs
   
4. 
   Opportunities
   

6. 
   Conclusions and Recommendations