The development of shiite political thought from shura to wilayat al-faqih

The greatest problem faced by the Imamate philosophers in the process of constructing the doctrine of divine Imamate, of the Imams of the ‘Ahl al-Bayt’ lies in the position of the members of the Prophet’s family themselves on the doctrine of infallibility, as they were vehemently rejecting it. And they used to declare before the public that they are common and ordinary people, who can do wrong as they can to do right. They demanded of people to criticize them and guide them, and take the stand of opposition, when they commit any error or command evil- Allah forbids.

This is the position of the Commander of the Faithful Ali bin Abi Talib when he stood in the mosque of Kufah, and addressed the crowd in these words: “ It is surely the right of anyone who witnesses greatness of Allah in his heart, and exalts his position in his mind, to belittle and look down all other things and beings. The best of those who are as such, is the one on whom Allah’s bounties have been magnificent, as well as His benevolence. For the favors of Allah have never been bountiful on a person, except the right of Allah on him becomes great. One of the most despising condition of leaders in the sight of good people, is when it is thought of them as lovers of pride, and that their affairs are based on haughtiness. I loathe that it might come to your mind that I love eulogy and the airing of praise. I am not like that. Even if I had love it, I would have left it in submission to Allah, the Exalted, rather than enjoying what is most deserving to Allah, of greatness and exaltation. People may see praise as sweet after trial, but praise me in light terms, for I have given myself claiming rights I have not yet given to (its owners) and for duties that I have to perform. Do not talk to me on what the oppressors discuss, and you don’t need to be more careful regarding me, just as need the harbinger dives. Do not interact with me hypocritically, and do not think that I will be lethargic for a right that is said to be mine, as I do not arrogate to myself something that is not a right for me, for anyone who took the truth as a heavy burden, or justice that has been placed before him, he will find it very difficult to act upon that. You should never stop saying the truth and counseling on justice, because I am not above committing mistakes, and I do not feel secured from that in my acts, except if Allah suffice me in what He has power on which I do not have power on. You and I are slaves owned by the Lord beside whom there is no Lord. He has power regarding ourselves on what we have no power. He is the one who brought us to what we are now to what will be good for us. He substituted misguidance, with guidance and endowed us with insight after blindness.” (3)

In another sermon the commander of the Faithful, Imam Ali mentioned the Kharijite, Al-Kharit bin Najiyah and his earlier attempts to instigate the Imam to kill and arrest a number of the leading opposition figures, and the statement of the Imam to him, and to the general populace, that their duty is to stand by his side, and prevent, him, even he wanted to do that himself, and his saying to him “Fear Allah!”

Imam Ali would not have said that to him, if there were any tradition on infallibility among the Imams and Shiites and (other) Muslims. That is because, the glory of infallibility makes it necessary for the Imam to be above all kind of criticisms, and that he will beyond any kind of opposition, or any attempt by anyone to advise and counsel him. Imam Ali has never done that, he depicted best example of humility and equality… He would not have demand of his companions to perform their political role in checking and correcting the Imam (if infallibility was the norm).

He (Ali) said in his du’ah (supplication): “ O Allah forgive me what you know of me, if I go back to it again, forgive me again. O Allah! Forgive me what I kept in my mind, but You did not accomplish for me! O Allah! Forgive me what I said with my tongue in devotion to You, but my heart was inconsistent with it! O Allah forgive me the glimpses of the eyes, errors in speech, the desire of the heart and slippery of the tongue.” (4)

In another place Imam Ali mentioned the qualities of the ruler and the basic requirements that must be available in him, without mentioning infallibility as one of them. He says: “… It is not befitting for the leader of people in their privacy, blood, booty, and Imam of Muslims to be: a miser so that he will find his lust in their wealth; nor an ignorant person, lest he lead them astray with his ignorance. Nor discourteous, lest he turns into different groups through his discourteousness; nor an unjust person towards people that accepts some and rejects others, nor one to takes bribes in judgment, that he deny people their rights; nor the one who abandons the tradition (sunnah), lest the Ummah be destroyed.” (5)

He also says in another sermon: “ O you people, surely the most deserving and suitable person for this matter is the most powerful of them in it, and the most knowledgeable of Allah’s instructions regarding it.” (6)

Saduq narrates in his Amali the story of Fatimah al-Zahra (peace be upon her), which is in conflict with the theory of infallibility, professed by the theologians. He reported that: Once Imam Ali bin Abi Talib spent the wealth from a field (farm) that he sold, to the extent that he did not leave even a penny. Fatimah protested and held onto his clothes. Jibril descended and informed the Prophet (peace be upon him), who then went to her and said: “It is not permissible for you to held onto his clothes, or to beat his hands.” She said: “I seek the forgiveness of Allah and I will not repeat it again.” (7)

As Sharif al-Rida also mentioned in ‘Khasa’is al-A’imah’, that Imam Hussain once borrowed a velvet from the public treasury that infuriated Imam Ali who said to him: “O father of Muhammad (beware of) the fire!… O father of Muhammad (beware of) the fire…. Till he went out with it.” (8)

Likewise Imam Hussain (peace be upon him) did not point to the subject of infallibility in his letter to the people of Kufah, sent through his envoy Muslim bin Aqeel, he only allude to the necessity of the existence of certain qualities in the ruler, like Taqwa (fear of Allah), and sticking to the dictates of the Quran and religion. He said: “By (the One who holds) my lifespan…The Imam is none other than the one who acts upon the teachings of the Book, who confines himself to the will of Allah who is just and follows the religion of Allah.” (9)

Imam Baqir reports a Hadith from the Messenger of Allah on the qualities of the ruler, but he did not include infallibility. He said: “The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said: “ The leadership of my Ummah will be right only for the man who possesses three qualities, namely, God fearing that deter him from disobeying Allah, and forbearance, by which he controls his anger and good leadership of those he leads, till he becomes to them like a merciful father.” In another narration- “Till he becomes for the subjects like a merciful father.” This indicates that the Imamate can be among the common people with the above qualities. (10)

Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) has said: “ By Allah we are no other than servants… we cannot inflict harm or benefit (anyone). If we find mercy; it is due to Him, and if we are punished, it is due to our sins. By Allah, we have no excuse before Allah, nor do we claim any innocence before him. Definitely we are going to die, and will be put in the graves, and will be resurrected and questioned. I testify before you that I am a man born by the Messenger of Allah without any claim of innocence from Allah. If I obey Him He will shower mercy on me, and if I disobey Him, He will punish me severely.” (11)

There are two other narrations mentioned by Saduq in his book, ‘Uyun Akhbar al-Rida’ on the infallibility of the Prophets He said: “ Imam Rida discussed them (the two narrations) with Ali bin Muhammad bin al-Jahm, the servant of Mamun and he interpreted the clear Quranic verses on the mistakes (sins) of the Prophets and clear them of those sins. The narrator did not mention any Hadith from Imam Rida in this regard on the infallibility of the Imams, which shows the lack of adoption of the members of the Prophets family of the doctrine of infallibility, and the non- existence or appearance of such Hadiths in those days, except with the Imamate and extreme Shiites, and that also was secretly. If the Hadith of infallibility had any ground in the sight of the members of Ahl al-Bayt, Imam Rida must discuss them. For he as is being said, used to discuss the Imamate openly and boldly, because he was not afraid of the Abbasid Caliph, Mamun, for whom he became the Crown prince… Then why did Imam Rida only mention the infallibility of the Prophets (peace be upon them), but did not talk on the infallibility of the Imams.” (12)

Despite the clear stance of the Ahl al-Bayt’ on the claim of infallibility, and their stressing that they have ordinary human nature, and their seeking of Allah’s forgiveness on what they may commit, the Imamate Shiism had tried to stick onto that, interpreting the authentic narrations that deny infallibility, saying that they came from the Imams in the time of public teaching, or they were issued by means of Taqiyyah (insinuation). They narrated side by side with these reports, a group of other narrations which claim infallibility in clear terms, and which made it a condition in the Imam or the Imams from Ahl al- Bayt. They were weak, ambiguous and unspecific narrations.

There was a Mursal Hadith (in which a companion is missing) from Imam Zayn Al- Abidin, where he says: “ The Imam from among us must be infallible. Infallibility is not a bodily feature that can be seen and recognized by the common people, but it is holding fast to the rope of Allah. And the rope of Allah is the Quran. The Quran guides to the Imam.” (13)

Even if we overlook the scrutinization of this tradition that has no chain of narration, which was just attributed to Imam Zayn al- Abidin, it is evident that it interprets infallibility with holding unto the rope of Allah, which is the Quran. He did not mention any kind of ring imposed by Allah around the Imam, which prevents him from committing sins, as the theologians say.

There is another tradition from Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) in which he interpretes the infallible (Ma’sum), to be the one who abstains, for Allah’s sake, from all what He has prohibited. Allah the Most High has said. “…. And whoever holds firmly to Allah, then he is indeed guided to the Right Path.’ This also points to the same meaning as given by Imam Sajjad. (14)

This being so Saduq has also reported in Ikmal al-Din from Salim bin Qays from the Commander of the Faithful (Ali) that he said: “Allah has indeed purified us and protected us and has made us to be in the company of the Quran, and made the Quran to be with us, we will never separate from it, as it will never separate from us.”

He has also reported in ‘Uyun Akhbar al-Rida’, from Abdullah bin Abbas who said “ I heard the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) saying: “ Myself and Ali and Hassan and Hussain and nine of the children of Hussain are purified and infallible. Al- Majlisi reported in ‘Bihar al- Anwar’ a number of traditions which he said are attributed to Salim bin Qays al- Hilali, but they are not found in his book. He mentioned as part of them, a tradition that says: “ Obedience is indeed for Allah, the Exalted and for His Messenger and for those in authority. Allah has commanded obedience of those in authority because they are infallible and purified, and they do not command what is vice.”(15)

These traditions have no intellectual value, because they neither have chains of narrations, nor are they authentic.

There is another long narration found only with Saduq, from Imam Rida, speaking openly and in front of the Abbasid Caliph, Mamun, of the infallibility of Ahl al-Bayt, their virtues and characteristic features. (16)

But that report has a weak chain of transmission, that was because Saduq reported it from Ali bin Hussain bin Shadhiwaih Al- Mu’addab (an abandoned reporter) and Jafar bin Muhammad bin Masrur (also abandoned), and Al- Rayyan bin al-Salt (a weak reporter), who was one of the supporters of Fadl bin Sahl, without attributing his statement to anyone, nor claiming to have attended and heard the tradition himself. That was why no one reported it before Saduq, who lived in the middle of the fourth century of Hijrah. In addition to that it included a statement on the interpolation of the Quran, where it added ‘ Wa rahtuka, al- Mukhlisin’ to “And admonish your close relations, claiming that it was deleted from the Quran. This is what the extremist sects used to say and attribute to the Imams. The Imams have always disowned such statements and denied them. The narration depends also a hermeneutical approach and arbitrary interpretations at some other times. Even though the narration tries to establish infallibility and purity of the members of the Prophet’s family (Ahl al-Bayt), and the impossibility of their apostasy and ever reverting to misguidance, it did not give time to explain who are the ‘ Ahl al- Bayt; after confining them to the children of the Prophet and Imam Ali bin Abi Talib, without any strong and clear evidence…. Despite the difference among them on this issue, the children of the different Imams were in constant conflict among themselves, and each one of them claims that he is the Imam and the most deserving after his father. He will accuse others of lying and hypocrisy, and straying away from the truth. The narration also uncover the attempts of philosophers to interprete the Quran with what is in line with their new theory on the infallibility of the Imams.

 

THE STANCE OF IMAM SADIQ ON THE IMAMATE

Part of what confirmed the negative stance of Imam Sadiq on the Imamate theologians, and their secret doctrine which they developed independently and away from Ahl al- Bayt, were the many Hadiths of the Imam. The Imamate heritage is replete with them, through they interprete in the name of Taqiyyah (insinuation). Once a delegation of Shiites from Kufah, came to him and asked him: “ O father of Abdullah, some people came to us claiming that among you- Ahl al- Bayt’ there is the Imam whose obedience is obligatory?” He said to them: “No, 1 do not know that in the members of our family.” They said: “O father of Abdullah, they are people of hard work, seclusion and piety, and they claim that you are the one.” He then said: they know better what they have said, I did not command them to do so.” (17)

Mufid stated in ‘Al- Irshad’ that: Imam Sadiq said to Hisham bin Salim al- Tawaliqi: “ You want to narrate traditions but you don’t know (it).” He also said to Qays al-Masir: “You speak what is farthest away from the truth and from the statements of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), you are from it. You mix truth with falsehood, little truth is enough (and better).” (19)

Al- Kashi says: Imam Sadiq prevented Mumin al-Taq from speaking, and he said to him after a debate between him and a man from ‘Al-Sharah’: “You did corner him, by Allah, you did not say even a word of the truth.” He said: “How was that? He replied: “ Because you were speaking on Qiyas (analogical deduction) and Qiyas is not part of my religion.” (20)

Imam Sadiq did send to him Mufaddal bin Umar to stop him from speaking. When he came close to his house he said to him: “Abu Abdullah is telling you not to speak.” He replied: “ I fear that I may not be able to persevere.” (21)

Imam Sadiq also asked Fudail bin Uthman about him (Mumin al-Taq): What happen to the owner of Taq (arch), it has come to me that he is controversial and that he speaks on ‘Taym Badr.” “ He replied, “Yes, he is controversial.” The Imam then said: “Definitely if one of his smart opponents wants to overcome him, he can do it. He will say! Tell me this your doctrine, from the sayings of your Imam.” If he will say, “Yes, he will lie against us. And if he says, no, he will say to him: “How do you talk on things that are not being said by your Imam?” Then Imam Sadiq said: You say things if I affirm and accept them, I stand in error, and if I disown them, you separate from me… “ Fudail bin Uthman then said: “ Should I convey your message to him?” He replied: “By Allah they have gone into a matter, nothing will prevent them from abandoning it, except zealotry.” Fudail then said, “ I informed Abu Ja’far Al- Ahwal on that, and he said: “ He has surely spoken the truth, may my father and mother be ransom for him, nothing prevent us from abandoning that, except zealotry.” (22)

Al- Kashi also says: Imam Sadiq refused to receive Abu Basir and he said to him: “ People of Kalam (theology) will perish and the Muslims will be saved.” The Muslims are the chosen.” He also said: “I used to narrate Hadith to a person, and stop him from disputation and argumentation in the religion of Allah, and I prevent him from using ‘Qiyas’ (analogy), then when he leaves me he will distort my statements in a manner not said by me. I have commanded some people to explain the doctrine and have prevented others. Anyone who distorts my message, he does it against himself, he falls into disobedience of Allah and His Messenger.” (23)

 

THE CRISIS OF AL- BADA’ (CHANGEOF WILL)

 

On the other side, the nascent doctrine of Imamate suffered a serious setback with the death of Ismail bin Ja’far Sadiq. The Imamate Shiites in Kufah have gathered around him, and claimed that they transmitted (a tradition) from his father, that Ismail is his Khalifah (successor) after him. When he died in the lifetime of his father, it became clear that his appointment was not from Allah, otherwise he will not die before his father, or that the Imam used to appoint whom he knows (from Allah) that he will live after him.

Due to this, Sulaiman bin Jarir and a group of Shiites abandoned the doctrine of Imamate after they have believed in it for a long time. They reverted to considering Imam Sadiq as an ordinary scholarly figure, or considered the Imamate as a common human affair, with no any link to Allah. (24)

But a faction of the imamate Shiites influenced by the Khattabiyyah esoteric movement, refused believing Imam Sadiq, and admitting the evident truth, but insisted on denying the death of Ismail, claiming that it was a drama staged by the Imam, and that what really happened was that he was smuggled out of Madinah, to protect him from dangers surrounding him, “because it is not possible for the Imam to appoint another person, who will die in his lifetime.” This was despite the presentation of Imam Sadiq of the dead body of his son Ismail several times and his demanding those attending the funeral to look at his face to confirm his death. The Khattabiyyah maintained the Imams in the line of the children of Ismail, forming the Ismailite sect, which established the Fatimid Kingdom. (25)

As for those who admitted the death of Ismail, they concealed this problem that establishes the non-existence of a text from Allah, by resorting to believing in ‘bada’ or the belief that Allah changed His will regarding Ismail after Imam Sadiq (or that the Imamate of Ismail was not achieved due to death), who according to their statement has pointed to him and made him the Imam after him.

Yet another section of the Imamate Shiites found it difficult to accept the doctrine of ‘bada’ and say that it was impossible for Allah to change His will. They interpreted ‘bada’ as manifesting from Allah, or they denied that Imam Sadiq did indicate that his son Ismail or any other person would be the Imam after him. They say that he refused to appoint anyone in person. And that he linked the issue of recognizing the Imam after his death, to a number of signs like being elderly, the claim of Imamate, a will, and taking the seat of the father.

Some reports transmitted by Saffar and Saduq do indicate that Muhammad bin Muslim, Yaqub bin Shu'aib and Abd al-A’ala were not aware of the Imam after Sadiq, and that he refused to reply to their question in specifying the name of the Imam to succeed him. He however, sought from them to go to Madinah, after his death, so as to inquire there about the new Imam. (26)

As a result of this ambiguity that surrounds the identity of the new Imam, the followers of Imam Sadiq, among the Imamate Shiites became divided into several sects. A group of them said that Imam Sadiq did not die, and that he was the awaited Mahdi. These are the Nawussites. A group of them believe in the Imamate of Isma'il, or his son Muhammad, and transferred the Imamate to his progeny—These are the Ismailites. (27)

The remaining followers acted on the instructions of Imam Sadiq, which called on them to move after his death. They went to Madinah where they found his elder son, Abdullah al-Aftah, occupying the seat of his father. He claimed possession of the will from his father, and being the Imam after him. The scholars and elders among the Shiites agreed on his Imamate, excluding those who claimed the Imamate of Ismail. Some of the Imamate Shiites reported from Imam Sadiq that he requested from his son, Musa to submit to his brother Abdullah, and not to dispute him in the matter. (28)

In this period, Zurarah bin A’yun, being one of the leading companions of both Imams Baqir and Sadiq died, without knowing the identity of the new Imam. He did send his son, Ubaidullah from Kufah to Madinah, to inquire about the new Imam, but was overtaken by death. At the time of his death, he placed the Quran on his chest and said: “ O Allah I testify to follow anyone whose Imamate was established by this Book.” (29)

All of Saffar, Kulayni, Mufid and Kashi confirmed that the pillars of the Imamate doctrine like Hisham bin Salim al- Jawaliqi and Muhammad bin Nu’man al- Ahwal initially went to Abdullah al-Aftah “upon whom people have agreed, that the affairs have returned to him after his father.” That was due to what the people narrated from Abu Abdullah (Sadiq): “The affair will be in the eldest, so long as he has no defect” and the insistence of Ammar al-Sabati (one of the companions of the two Imams Baqir and Sadiq) on his Imamate till his death. (30)

In this way, Abdullah al-Aftah occupied the position of Imamate through the will and being the eldest, and occupation the seat of his father. He almost enjoyed the consensus of the Shiites on his Imamate, without the existence of any clear text on him from his father Imam Sadiq. (31)

Hisham bin Salim al-Jawaliqi said that he once went to Abdullah al-Aftah together with a group of Shiites, who asked him questions on issues of fiqh, but he did not answer them correctly, and that made them doubt his Imamate and they left him “ confused and strayed … so we sat in a corner of Kufah weeping and perplexed not knowing where to turn or go. We said: To the Murji’ites? To the Zaydites? To the Mutazilites? To the Kharijites? We were in that condition when I saw an old man whom I did not know, making a gesture with his hand. He said to me: “Enter may Allah have mercy on you. So I entered, there I found Abu al-Hassan Musa. He first said to me. “ Not to the Murjiites, nor to the Qadarites, nor to the Zaydites, nor to the Mutazilites, nor to the Kharijites…. But to me to me!  I said to him: “May I be your ransom has your father gone?” He replied: “ If Allah wishes to guide you, He will guide you.” I said: May I be your ransom, are you the one? He said: “ No, I am not saying that.” I then said to myself: I did not ask correctly. I then said: “ Is there any Imam above you.” He said: “ No” Then something of his respect and awe only Allah knows, entered me. Then I said: “ Shall I will ask you as I used to ask your father?” He said: “ Ask…. And you will be informed. And do not spread (this fact), and if you will do it , you will be slaughtered.” He said: “Then I asked him and found him, as a sea (of knowledge) that cannot be exhausted. I said: May I be your ransom…the supporters (Shiites) of your father have gone astray. Put this to them and call them to yourself? You have imposed on me secrecy and concealment.” He said: “Anyone you found to be guided, you can put it before him, and impose secrecy on him, if he will spread it, he will be slaughtered”—and he demonstrated by putting his hand on his throat. He said: Then I went out from his place and met Abu Ja’far al-Ahwal, and he said to me: “ What happened to you? “ I said: Guidance’ and I explained to him the story. We then met Fudail and Abu Basir, they went to him, listen to his statements, asked him and then agreed to follow him.”(32)

Hisham says in this narration: People have agreed—at least initially—on the Imamate of Abdullah al-Aftah, and the leaders of the Imamate Shiites did not know of any text on Kadhim, who refused to claim Imamate for himself. The establishment of his Imamate, according to Hisham, was due to his vast knowledge, and the unprepared ness of Imam Kadhim to declare his Imamate before the public.

Whether it is true that Hisham and his companions have rescinded their position as regards the Imamate of Abdullah al-Aftah in his life time or not, Al-Aftah died after about 70 days of the death of his father, without leaving behind an issue, in whose line the Imamate may continue. This has created a new crisis in the ranks of the Imamate Shiites, who believed that the Imamate is from Allah, and that it must continue in the progenies, and the progenies of progenies till the day of Resurrection. They became divided, forming three sects. One of them-the Musawites rescinded the doctrine of Imamate and deleted his name from the list of Imams. Some of those who lived after him (Abdullah) accused him of disobedience (fisq), ignorance, and deviation, and that for the purpose of explaining the illegality of his Imamate from the beginning. (33)

Some of them shifted to the idea of the Imamate of his brother, Musa after him like Abdullah bin Bukair and Ammar bin Musa al-Sabati. These people were known as the Fathites (Al-Fathiyyah), being some of the great companions of Imam Sadiq and other previous Imams. (34)

Fathites transcended the issue of vertical heredity (as regards the Imamate), and believed that it is allowed that two brothers can be Imams, if the earlier one has no issue. The third group insisted however, on the claim of the existence of a son for Abdullah al-Aftah, in secret, and that he has hidden him as a form of Taqiyyah: They said his name was Muhammad bin Abdullah: and that he is the Awaited Mahdi, who is in occultation in Yemen.

This crisis has uncovered the fragility and ambiguity of the doctrine of a text on Imamate, as well the difficulty of the Imamate Shiites in specifying and recognizing the Imam (mentioned through text from Allah), and their consensus on him, and the impossibility of believing in an Imam who has not fulfilled the requirements of Imamate, and then withdrawing from that position later on.