The development of shiite political thought from shura to wilayat al-faqih

Besides infallibility and divine knowledge seen by Imamate thought as necessary qualities in the Imam to be emulated, there are other qualities for the Imam also. That is he must be the best of the Muslims, as the Imamate of the suitable is not permitted in the presence of the most suitable. He must also be the bravest of men and the most generous. Sheikh Tusi says: “The Imam must be better than all his subjects, i.e. he must excel in rewards from Allah, and also be better than them all in all what he leads them.” (30)

He also said: “It is necessary that the Imam should be braver than all his followers, and all what follows of that quality that affirms his being their leader, in what pertains to fighting the enemies, which involves bravery. He must be the most powerful of them in that. This is because, the head is usually better than the followers whom he leads, as we have shown of the evil of preferring the better over the best, in what he is better than him. On his being the most authoritative and powerful, this comes from the law itself, because the name of Imam is given to only that one that above whom there is no leader or head. On his being the most understanding and rational, this is because, he has to have the best of opinions in any issue, due to being the most knowledgeable in policy and administration.” (31)

Sayyid Murtada says  “ That which makes it necessary for the Imam to be the best in pious acts and rewards, as well as in knowledge an all other kinds of virtues related to religion, above all his subjects, i.e. in the virtues wherein he leads them, is what we and all rational people know of the evil of making the better in a particular virtue the leader and head of the best in that. The Imam is our leader in all aspects of religion, its knowledge and injunctions, then it is necessary that he will be better than us in all that.” (32)

After affirming the necessity of describing the Imam, any Imam, in terms of infallibility, and of being the best in knowledge, bravery and generosity, and the non-permissibility of the Imamate of the fallible and the ignorant or the better (in the presence of the best), and since there is no way of knowing this except through divine guidance, the Imamate thought rested on the principle of abandoning ‘ Shura’ as a means of choosing an Imam. This principle was substituted with the idea of the (divine) text or the will or miracles from the unseen, which distinguish the Imam chosen by Allah from all other humans.

Sheikh Mufid says: “The Imam must be knowledgeable in all injunctions needed by the Ummah, and the most religious of all his followers. If these fundamentals are available, it is incumbent on him to declare himself to his subjects through a text (decree), and an extraordinary and miraculous knowledge. This is because there is no way of knowing anyone who possesses these qualities except through a text from the truthful, which he himself received from Allah or through a miracle”. (33)

Sayyid Murtada also says: “ If it has been established that the Imam must be knowledgeable in all the injunctions, it becomes impossible to elect him, but rather there must be a (divine) text on (his being) the Imam. This is because those who will elect him are not knowledgeable in all the injunctions, then how is it possible to choose the one with this quality? “He also says: “ If it has been established that the Imam is our leader in all (aspects of) religion, and its knowledge and injunctions, It becomes necessary that he will be better than all of us in all that. And in his being the most pious and religious, comes the necessity of a clear text on him, as this cannot be reached through (mere) election.” (34)

He also says: “Know that our belief on the necessity of the (divine) text and its indispensable nature as regards the Imamate, has already been explained above, and that is enough to show that election is invalid. This is because anything that has been established by the text itself that vitiates or nullifies election. Know that that which we depend on, on the invalidity of the election of the Imam, is the exposition of his qualities, which the electorate have no evidence on, and it is not possible to know that through rational thinking or ‘Ijtihad’ and these are limited to All-knowing Allah, like infallibility, superiority in righteous acts and rewards, and knowledge above all the Ummah. There is no ambiguity that these qualities cannot be grasped through elections, except by means of a (divine) text. We did explain also that it is not possible to assert the validity of election, when we consider the qualities…We also said: that is an invalid instruction, on the basis that one is commanded to do something wherein he has nothing to guide him to it, and no authority to distinguish the compulsory act from what is not.”(35)

1-     1-     Tarikh al-Tabari, Vol. 6, P. 170, Al- Imamah wa al – Siyasah, vol. 1, p. 151

2-     2-     Hussain Atwan: Al-Shura Fi al-Asr al-Umawi P. 30 see also Ansab al –Ashraf, Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah fi al Tarikh, Tarikh al-Rusul wa al – Muluk, Al –Iqd al-Farid, Al- Kamil fi al-Tarikh, and Tarikh al- Khulafa of Al-Suyuti.

3-     3-     Al- Bidayah wa al-Nihayah, vol. 8, P. 131

4-     4-     Ansab al-Ashraf, vol. 4, P. 117

5-     5-     Jahiz: Al-Bayan was al- Tabyin, Vol. 2, P. 94, Tarikh al- Rusul wa al- Muluk, vol. 5, Al-Iqd al-Farid vol. 4, P. 112, Al-Kamil, Vol. 3 p. 449, and Ibn Abi al-Hadid’s commentary on Nahj al-Balaghah, Vol. 16, P. 202.

6-     6-     Al- Imamah wa al-Siyasah, vol.1, P .300

7-     7-     ibid, vol. 1,p. 204

8-     8-     Al-Bayan wa al-Tabyin, Vol. 1,P. 300

9-     9-     Baladhuri: Ansab al- Ashraf, Vol. 5, P. 354

10- 10- Ibn Qutaybah, Al- Imamah wa al-Siyasah, Vol. 2 P. 32

11- 11- Al – Iqd al-Farid, Vol, 5, P. 25

12- 12- Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, Vol. 7, P. 216

13- 13-  ibid, vol. 7, P. 221

14- 14- Hilli: Al- Khulasah, P. 93 and p. 178, Mufid; Al-Irshad, P. 280, see also Rijal al – Kashi, Al- Najashi and Al- Fihrist of Tusi,  ‘Ilal al- Shara’i of Saduq, P. 203

15- 15- Kulayni: Al- Kafi, Vol. 1, P. 174, Tabrisi: Al- Ihtijaj, Vol. 2, P. 141

16- 16-  Mufid: Al- Irshad. PP 278 279

17- 17-  Saduq: Ikmal al- Din, P. 362- 368, Al- Majlisi: Bihar alp al-Anwar, vol. 11, P. 291

18- 18- Saduq: Ikmal Amali, P. 363-363, Ilal al-Shara’ I P 204

19- 19- Ali bin Babawaih: Al-Imamah wa al- Tabsirah min al- Hayrah, P. 165

20- 20- ibid.

21- 21- ibid, P. 166

22- 22- Tusi: Talkhis al- Shafi, vol. 1, P. 192

23- 23- Mufid: Al- Nukat al- Itiqadiyyah, P. 48

24- 24- Hilli: Nahj al- Haq wa Kashf al- Sidq, P. 164 Hilli: Minhaj al-Karamah fi Ithbat al- Imamah, p. 51 (old edition), Muhammad Sadiq Sadr: Al-Shiah Al- Imamiyyah, P. 126

25- 25- Kulayni Al-Kafi, Al- Hujjah, P. 169

26- 26- ibid, PP. 14-15

27- 27- Tusi: Talkhis al-Shafi, vol. 1 P. 108

28- 28- ibid. Vol. 1, p. 236

29- 29- ibid, vol. 1, p. 240

30- 30- ibid. Vol. 1, p199-211

31- 31- ibid. Vol. 1, p. 264

32- 32- Murtada: al-Shafi, vol 2, p. 42

33- 33- Mufid: Al- Thaqalan al-Kitab wa al-Itrah /numerous treatises, P. 179.

34- 34- Murtada, op. cit. vol. 2, P. 17 and P. 42

35- 35- ibid, Vol. 4 P. 6.

The Imamate school of thought presents as evidence of the ‘infallibility’ of the members of the Prophet’s household, the following Quranic verse: “ Allah wishes only to remove evil deeds and sins from you, O members of the family (of the Prophet) (peace be upon him).” (Ahzab) i.e. by interpreting wish (iradah) to mean creational wish not legislative wish, because it is impossible that the divine wish will fell to remove evil deeds from them. Allah the Most High has said: “Verily, His command, when He intends a thing is only that He says to it, “ be “ and it is. The thought also excluded the wives of the Prophet (peace be upon him) from the rank of Members of the family of the Prophet (peace be upon him) and confining (that honor) to Imam Ali and Fatimah and their children. (1)

The Imamate historian Sa’id bin Abdullah Al-Qummi al-Ashari has reported to us the precise form of this thought in his work, ‘Al- Maqalat wa al-firaq’ where he says: Imam Ali bin Abi Talib is Imam whose obedience has been imposed by Allah and His Messenger (peace be upon him) as a duty on mankind, to accept him and receive (instructions) from him. Anyone other him is not their valid leader. Any one who obeys him, obeys Allah, and anyone who disobeys him, disobeys Allah, due to the sign the messenger of Allah has established for them and the imposition of his Imamate and leadership and his deserving right more than that of their own souls. The Prophet has also endowed him (Ali) with the knowledge that will be needed by humanity in religion, the permissible and the prohibited and all what benefits them in the religious and worldly life, as well as whatever harms them, and all kinds of knowledge, little of great, he left it as a trust with him, as well as being its custodian.

“ And that he deserves the Imamate and the position of the Prophet, due to his infallibility and the purity of his birth, as well as being among the pioneers (in accepting Islam), his knowledge, his bravery, jihad, generosity, asceticism and justice among his followers. The Prophet (peace be upon him) has mentioned through a text by his name and lineage and person. He handed over to him the Imamate of the Ummah he established him as a sign, and made him the benefactor of his will and his vicegerent, as well as his vizier on many occasions. He (the prophet peace be upon him) told them that his position to him was like the position of Harun to Musa, except that there is no Prophet after him. Since he makes him his equal in his life, then he is the most deserving of them after his death, just as he was more deserving of them than their own selves, as he made him similar to himself in the Mubahalah (invoking Allah’s curse on whoever is not truthful), in the statement of Allah… “ Ourselves and yourselves…” and also in the statement of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) to the children of Wali’ah “Otherwise I will send to you a man like myself.” The position of the Prophet will not be due for anyone after him except such as was like him. The Imamate is the most exalted of affairs after prophet hood, as it is one of the most esteemed of the obligatory duties from Allah. If the obligatory duties cannot be established, nor accepted, except with the existence of a just Imam and since it is necessary that, that Imamate must continue always in his progeny till the day of resurrection, it will be in his children from Fatimah, the daughter of the Messenger of Allah, and then in his grandchildren from her, a man from them will always take his position forever. He will be infallible of sins, purified from all defects, pious, pure, and free of all ailments in religion, lineage and birth. One who cannot err intentionally or unintentionally, specifically mentioned by text from the Imam preceding him, one pointed by his name and person… and that the Imamate will continue in his progeny in this way, as long as mankind follow the commandments of Allah.”(2)

The Imamate scholars who grew up in the beginning of the second century of Hijrah have tried to draw back their theory, and to read the Shiite political history anew, in the light of their theory based on (the idea of) a text (nass), and the abandoning of the previous Shiite political thought which was based on (the idea of) Shura (consultation).

They naturally attributed their thought to the members of the family (of the Prophet (peace be upon him) – Ahl al-Bayt and claimed taking it from them. This is why Sheikh Mufid said the following: “ Alawite Shiites have agreed that the Imamate at the time of the death of the Prophet (peace be upon him) was for the commander of the faithful Ali bin Abi Talib, and that it was for Hassan bin Ali after his brother. And that after Hussain it will be for the children of Fatimah (peace be upon her) not leaving them to other people. None other than them deserves it. They are the right people for it, to the end of time. And that it is the exclusive right of the children of Hussain, it will not leave to some other people till the hour (of judgment)”. (3)

Contrary to the Kissanite thought which depend on the Prophets will for Imam Ali, the Imamate thought has depended largely on the subject of ‘ Ghadir’ and found in it a strong evidence with political meaning, and a text for the Caliphate. Sheikh Mufid says in 'Al-Ifsah fi Imamah ‘Ali bin Abi Talib: “The Prophet (peace be upon him) has bestowed to Imam Ali at the Ghadir (Small Stream) of ‘ Khoum’ proper leadership, and showed how he resembles him in the necessity of obeying him, so also his commanding, prohibiting and organizing their affairs and his leadership of them … He confirmed his superiority over the others in the community, as well as his support and viziership and Caliphate in his life and after his (the Prophet’s) death. (4)

In addition to that, they depended on some textual evidences on the virtue of Imam Ali bin Abi Talib, and others, which clearly confirm his leadership and Imamate. But all these were from Shiite reporters. It has always been suspected as being fabricated or given strained or forced meaning contrary to the apparent one, as well as reading political meaning in those traditions.

Sayyid Murtada has confessed in his work ‘Al- Shafi fi al- Imamah’, that the most important Prophetic tradition regarding the Imamate, is the Hadith of Ghadir of Khoum’ and that it is a covert not an overt text, if we dropped the additions made to it. (5)

Despite the denial of the Imamate theologians of the Imamate of those claimed it for themselves like Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah and Abdullah Al-Aftah, due to lack of clear texts on that, and despite the statement of Sheikh Mufid on the impermissibility of establishing the Imamate of any one on whom there is no text or evidence confirming his Imamate, because infallibility can only be known through a text—as Sheikh Mufid and Tusi have said (6)--- Despite all these, the Imamate historians were not able to establish any textual (evidence) on the Imamate of the others, especially that of Imam Ali bin Hussain, who served as a link between Imam Hussain and the remaining Imams to the day of judgment. This has led the theorizers of divine Imamate to depend on other means apart from the text in establishing the Imamate of the remaining Imams, like the will, reason, miracle and so on. (7)

 

REASON IN PLACE OF THE TEXT

 

Hence due to the weakness of the texts reported by the Imamate Shiite regarding the Caliphate of the members of the Prophet’s family, the earlier theologians have in the first place depended on reason (aql) in establishing their theory. Sheikh Mufid says: “ If one of the opponents will say that the texts being reported by the Imamate Shiites are fabricated, fabricated, and the traditions were reported by single reporters, otherwise let them mention their chains of narrators and affirm their authenticity in a manner that will not leave any doubt…. It will be said to him: “It is of no effect to the Imamate Shiites in their belief explained above, the lack of consensus regarding the texts for the Imams. Its being traditions reported by single reporters does not disqualify it from being evidences for them, due to what accompany it of rational evidences, we have mentioned and explained on the necessity of the Imamate and the attributes of the Imams. This is because if rational evidences are invalid as the opponents imagine, the rational evidences establishing the necessity of texts for confirming the Imams will also be invalid, as we have explained.” (8)

Sayyid Murtada says in Al- Shafi: “We have two ways of establishing the Imamate of the remaining Imams. Firstly by referring to clear reports of Shiites, which constitute evidences, the Prophets text wholly or partly, and what has been reported from the leader of the faithful and the text of each one of them on the one succeeding him. Secondly by depending on rational arguments based on logical principles in establishing the Imamate of anyone of them, without recourse to tradition.” (9)

The same thing was said by Abu Al-Fath Muhammad bin Ali Al-Jarajiki in his book, ‘Al- Istinsar fi al-Nass ala Aimah al- Athar’: “ Know that, may Allah help you, that Allah, the Exalted has made easy for Shiite scholars different rational and traditional evidences on the validity of the Imamate of the members of the Prophets family, such that can establish proofs against their opponents. The rational arguments establish the principle of the necessity of the need for the Imam in every age, and his known attributes like infallibility, which distinguish him from the entire members of the Ummah, such attributes are not available in other than the one pointed to (by Allah). As for the traditional evidences, we have the Quran which points generally to their leadership and superiority over other beings.” (10)

 

MIRACLES IN PLACE OF REASON

 

If the theory of Imamate presents some texts as regards Imam Ali bin Abi Talib (peace be upon him), it admits the lack of it as regards a number of the other Imams. And for this reason they sometime depend on ordinary wills, and take them as evidences instead of the text. They lack sometime even ordinary wills, and for some they resort to the miraculous, in place of the texts.

Hisham bin al-Hakam established his statement on the Imamate of Sadiq, on the claim of the knowledge of the Imam regarding the unseen (ghayb). He said to the Syrian man who debated with him on the Imamate at Muna, “ the miracle is the means of identifying the Imam, and confirming the truth of his claim.” He never mentions the issue of the text at all. If the text was an essential requirement, the earlier Imamate theologians could have depended on it, and Hisham would have brought it up as evidence on the Imamate of Imam Sadiq, or at least point to it. He did not however, say anything on it, except the evidence of the miraculous and the Imam’s knowledge of the unseen.

Of the quotations from the scholars cited above, there is a pointer to the evidence of the miraculous. Sheikh Mufid has said in ‘Al-Thaqalan’ after the discussion on the condition of infallibility of the Imam. “ If these principles have been established, it becomes necessary for the Imam to declare to the people, through a text on his Imamate, and through miraculous knowledge, as there is no way of knowing the one who possesses all these qualities except through a true text from Allah, the Almighty or a miracle.” Sayyid Murtada has also said in ‘Al-Shafi’ after discussion on infallibility; “If that has been established, it becomes necessary to declare it either through a text or a miracle.”  Sheikh Tusi has said in Talkhis Al- Shafi: “The provision of the text on the Imam or what may stand for it of the miracle that confirms his Imamate… It is necessary to have a text for the Imam in person or presentation a miracle in its place, despite the validity of the statement above.”

Allamah Hilli also says in ‘Nahj al-Haq:’ “ The ways of appointing the Imam are two: Either through a text from Allah, the Exalted or His Prophet (peace be upon him) or an Imam, whose Imamate has been established through a text, or through the appearance of miracles from him.”

In truth, the Imamate theory is mainly in need of the subject of miracles, in the process of establishing the Imamate of Ali bin Hussain   Al- Sajjad, who had no text or will from his father, as Imam Hussain was killed in Karbala without leaving a text on his Imamate. Imam Hussain only left a will for his sister Zaynab, or his daughter Fatimah, as mentioned by Imam Baqir and Sadiq. Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah did claim the possession of a will from his father. Imam Ali, and he headed the Shiites on the basis of that after the withdrawal of Imam Sajjad from the political arena.

The Imamate theory also needed to establish the Imamate of Sajjad for it to maintain Imamate in the children of Hussain only. Otherwise the claim will be broken and the argument of Kissanites and Hassanites, those who directly led the Shiites, will be stronger than that of the Imamate Shiites.

In this regard the Imamate Shiites used to report the conflict between Imam Sajjad and his uncle Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah who denied the existence of any text or will for him, and demand of him to follow him. Sajjad then sought from him that both should go to Al-Hajar al-Aswad (the BlackStone)for  judgment, which talked miraculously and in very eloquent Arabic, establishing the Imamate of Sajjad demanding from Ibn Hanafiyyah to submit to him. As the Imamate Shiites, especially Abu Basir used to mention miraculous stories on the Imamate of Muhammad Baqir and Jafar Sadiq and Kadhim, as well as other Imam, So as to cover the lack of texts on their Imamates, or as support for ordinary wills, that do not point to the issue of Imamate and Caliphate.

Miracles are almost the principal evidences presented by the Imamate Shiites to establish the Imamate of a large number of Infallible Imams appointed by Allah, the Most high.

 

CONFINING THE IMAMATE TO THE CHILDREN OF HUSSAIN

 

After establishing the Imamate of both Hassan and Hussain, Imamate Shiites try to solve the issue of confining the Imamate to the progeny of Hussain exclusively. This is more so, because both of them were from the household of the Prophet (peace be upon him), and both were the children of Fatimah and Ali, and the children of Hassan have also claimed it for themselves. Some of them opined that the Awaited Mahdi would be from among them. Some of them even believed that the children of Hassan are superior to the children of Hussain, especially that the Hadiths that the Imamate Shiites put as evidence for confining the Imamate exclusively to the members of the Prophet’s family, like the Hadith of Thaqalain, -- include both the households. The Jeroudites based their doctrine of the possibility of the Imam coming from the children of Hassan and Hussain on that Hadith (tradition).”

A narration from Khazzaz al-Qummi in ‘Kifayah al-Athar’ from Jabir bin Yazid al-Ja’fi expresses the rejection of a section of the early Shiites of the idea of confining the Imamate to the children Hussain. Jabir said to Imam Baqir: Some people say that Allah has placed the Imamate in the progeny of Hassan and Hussain” He replied: “By Allah, they have lied, have they not heard Allah the Almighty saying: “ And he made it a word lasting among his offspring.” Has he then placed it only in the line of Hussain?” (12)

Hisham bin Salim Al-Jawaliqi has claimed that he once asked Imam Sadiq: “How did the Imamate become only from the line of Hussain excluding the children of Hassan? He the replied “ Allah wish to make the tradition of Musa and Harun continue in Hassan and Hussain have you not seen that the former two were both Prophets, just as the (latter) two were both co-partners, in the Imamate.” (12)

Haran bin A’yun has reported from Imam Baqir a tradition, in which he said, “Hassan did return 40,000 swords back to their covers, when the Leader of the Faithful was attacked, and offered them to Mu’awiyah… and Hussain went out and gave himself for the sake of Allah, together with 70 (seventy) men …who has more right to his blood, than us? (13)

There is another report from Abu ‘Amr al-Zubairi wherein he says that, he asked Imam Sadiq about the secret behind the Imamate leaving the children of Hassan and being limited to the children of Hussain. How was it so? What is the evidence for that? He replied him: “When Hussain faced Allah’s decree, it was not permissible to turn it to the son of his brother, nor to make a will for them on it, Allah says: “ And blood relations among each other have closer personal ties in the Decree of Allah…” So his children were closer to him than the children of his brother. Which means they have more right to the Imamate. This verse has excluded the children of Hassan from it, so it became for Hussain, going by the import of the verse. So it will be among them till the day of resurrection.” (14)

It seems these justifications were neither convincing, nor strong, due to which the Shiites continued searching the secret behind confining the Imamate to the offspring of Hussain, despite the leadership of the children of Hassan of the Shiites in different places. Saduq says: Muhammad bin Abi Yaqub al-Balkhi asked Imam Rida: “For what cause the Imamate became in the children of Hussain, excluding the children of Hassan? He replied him saying: “Because Allah has made it in the offspring of Hussain, and not the offspring of Hassan, Allah will not be questioned on what He does.”

It is evident that this reply came before the crystallization of the Imamate theory in the succeeding centuries, and its subsequent dependence on preconceived Hadith of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), which mention the names of the Imams one after the other. Despite the fact that Sheikh Saduq has reported this narration, it only seems that he did not trust this narration claimed to have come from Imam Rida, and this was why he had another view of the matter.

He says in Ikmal al-Din: “Know that when the Prophet (peace be upon him) advised (the Muslims) to hold fast to the family (of the Prophet), reason, common knowledge and the life history of the prophet (peace be upon him) all these confirm that he means the scholars among them, not the ignorant, and the pious among them and not otherwise. What is incumbent on us, is to look for anyone among them, who combined religious knowledge, with intellect, virtue, forbearance, asceticism, and independence in affairs, than we emulate him. If these qualities are found in two persons, and one of them accepts the doctrine of Zaydites and the other. The doctrine of the Imamate Shiites, we differentiate between them on the basis of clear evidence; Either a text from the preceding Imam, or something evident in his knowledge, or the doctrine of one of them will be known, which disqualifies him for being emulated, like the opinion of the Zaydites on Ijtihad and Qiyas (analogical deduction) in the obligatory duties and injunctions. It will be known on that, that they are not Imam.”(16)