The development of shiite political thought from shura to wilayat al-faqih

This is what caused a reaction from the Shiites, who form the main opposition to the Umayyads. They first asserted the right of the household of the Prophet in the Caliphate and government, then some of them pointed to Allah’s appointment of them, and yet another group declared their infallibility. These concepts that crystallized at the beginning of the second century of Hijrah, coupled with the factionalization that was like a hurricane in the Shiite movement, and the internal tussle for leader ship by the different wings of the household of the Prophet. All these led to the evolvement of the idea of Divine Imamate for the household of the Prophet, based on the principles of (Infallibility, Divine text and Divine Appointment), especially according to a section of them.

On top of the list of those advocating for this wre the following:

1.                  1.                            A famous theologian: Abu Ja’far al-Ahwal Muhammad bin Ali Nu'man, nick named 'Mumin al-Taq', who authored a number of books on this topic namely, Kitab al- Imamah, Kitab al-Ma’rifah, and Kitab al-Radd ala Ahl-Mutazilah fi Imamah al-Mafdul.

3.                  3.                            Hisham bin Salim Al-Jawaliqi

4.                  4.                            Qays Al-Masir

5.                  5.                            Hamran bin A’yun

6.                  6.                            Abu Basir, Laith bin Al-Bukhturi al-Muradi al-Asdi

7.                  7.                            Hisham bin al-Hakam al-Kindi d, 279 A.H) who wrote ‘Al-Imamah’, Al-Radd ala Hisham bin Salim al- Jawaliqi, Al-Radd ala Shaitan al-Taq ‘Kitab al-Tadbir fi al-Imamah, Imamah al-Mafdul’, Al-Wasiyyah wa al-Radd ala Munkiriha’ Kitab Ikhtilaf al –Nas fi al-Imamah and  'Al Majalis fi al-Imamah'. Sheikh Tusi said of him in the Fihrist he was of those who started the logical discussions on the Imamate and refined the school through rational means. He was a skilled theologian (scholastic). Allama Hilli said of him in his 'Al-Khulasah'. He was the first person to start discussions on (Imamate text and will) and he refined the school through rational means.

8.                           8.                         Muhammad bin Khalil known as al-Sakkak, companion of Hisham bin al- Hakam was also a theologian. He differed from Hisham in many things, except the principle of the Imamate. He has a number of books; some of them are Kitab al-Marifah, Kitab al-Istita’ah, Kitab al-Imamah, Kitab al-Radd ala man Aba Wujub al-Imamah bi al-Nass. (14) These scholastics have opined that, “Imamate is an obligation from Allah. It is among the members of the Prophet’s household, and it is hereditary in the children of Hussain downwards till the Day of Judgment. It is established by means of a text (nass) or will or miracles from the Unseen. Zayd bin Ali was taken aback with this theory, when he went to Kufah in preparation for his revolt against the Umayyad ruler, Hisham bin Al-Hakam in the year 122 A. H. That was when Mumin al-Taq was invited to join his movement but he rejected that because Zayd was not an Imam chosen by Allah.

Mumin al –Taq said “Zayd bin Ali sent to me while in hiding. So I went to him, and he said to me: “O father of Ja’far, what do you say if a visitor came to you…. Will you go out with him? He said, I said to him, “ If he were your father or your brother, I will go out with him” He said, “He them said to me”, I want to go and fight those people, come out with me.’ He said, I said No I will not do that, may I be your ransom. He said, ‘ He then said to me, “Do you prefer your soul over nine? He said ‘ I said to him “ It is only one soul, If Allah has a sign and evidence (Imam) on earth, then the one who abandoned you is saved, and anyone who go out with you (in revolt) will be doomed. If Allah has no sign (Imam), then the one who abandoned you and the one who supported you, are the same”. He then who said to me” O Father of Ja’far, I used to sit with my father on a dining arrangement, he used to give me a fat morsel, and he made a hot morsel cold for me as a sign of his compassion on me. But he did show compassion on me from the fire of hell, as he taught you religion, but he did not teach me. Then I said to him, “ May I be your ransom, of his compassion on you from the heat of hell fire, he did not tell you. He feared that you will not accept it and you will go to hell-fire, and he told me, if you accept you are saved and if I am not accepted he doesn’t mind. If I will be put in the hell-fire, just as Ya'qub, concealed the dream (of Yusuf) from his children.

Kashi reported in his “Rijal” a narration similar to the above but he said, “The dialogue took place before Imam Sadiq and that Zayd bin Ali first asked Mumin al-Taq a question: O Muhammad, it has reached me that you claim that among the family of Muhammad (peace be upon him) there is an Imam, whose obedience is an obligation? He replied with the same response. He then said to him, “ Your father did not want to tell you, lest you disbelieve, and there will be no intercession for you.”

Perhaps the first and the most powerful philosophical dialogues and debates that evolved on the necessity of the infallibility of the Imam, were the ones conducted by Hisham bin al-Hakam, which were reported by Saduq and Mufid, and they are as follows:

Mufid says in al-Irshad: Hisham bin Al-Hakam conducted a debate with a man from Syria, in the presence of Imam Sadiq on a mountains edge, by the side of the Haram. The Syrian man said to Hisham:

“O young man ask me on the Imamate of this man” i.e. Abu Abdullah – Hisham became angry to the extent of trembling, then he said to him:

“ Tell me…. Is your Lord more concerned with His creation than themselves or not?

The Syrian replied, “ My Lord is more concern His creation. “ Hisham then said “ What has he done for them in their religion? The man replied. “He commanded them (to obey Him) and established evidences on what He has commanded and He removed by that their excuses”.

Hisham then said to him, “ What is that evidence that he established for them? The Syrian said:

“He is the Messenger of Allah. Then Hisham said, “ Then after the Messenger of Allah who? “ He answered, “The Book of Allah and the Sunnah (tradition of the Prophet of Allah (peace be upon him).” Hisham then said, “ Will the Book and Sunnah help us today, if we differ on some issues, that our differences will be terminated, and we will agree among ourselves?

The Syrian said, “Yes Then Hisham said to him, “ Why do we differ we and you and you came to us from Syria, opposing us, and you claim that personal opinion is the way of establishing religious issues, and you admit that opinion will not lead to one statement being accepted by opposing parties.”

The Syrian became silent, like the one thinking. Then Abu Abdullah said to him, “ Why are you not speaking? He replied, “If I said we did not differ, I am being haughty, and if I said, the Book and the Sunnah will raise our differences, I have lost, because the two can be interpreted differently. But I have also to ask him.”

Abu Abdullah said, “ Ask him, you will find him up to the task.”

The Syrian then said to Hisham: “Who is more concerned with the creation, their Lord or themselves? 

Hisham replied: Their Lord is more concerned. “Then the Syrian said, “ Has he established for them, who will settle their differences and clear their misunderstandings, and explain to them what is right and what is wrong? He replied, ‘yes’, then the Syrian said: “Who is that?

Hisham then replied: “ At the inception of the shari'ah, it was the Messenger of Allah, and after the Prophet, it is someone else. The Syrian said, “ Who is that, other than the prophet who will stand in his place with a similar evidence?”

Hisham said: “In this our time or before it?”  He replied, “ No in this our time.”

He said: “This man sitting, (i.e. Abu Abdullah) to whom people travel (to see him). And he tells us of the news from Heavens, as a heritage from forefathers.”

The Syrian said; “ How can I know that?” Hisham replied:  “Ask him what you want”. The Syrian then said, “I excuse myself, so ask me”. Abu Abdullah then said to him:  “ I will tell you of your journey and travail – You set out on so-so day--- and your route was so and so, and so and so passed by you. The Syrian accepted whatever was described for him of his affairs saying. “By Allah you have spoken the truth.” (16)

There is another narration mentioned by Saduq in a long debate that took place in a later date between Hisham, Dirar and Abdullah bin Yazid al-Ibadi in the courtroom of the Abbasid vizier Yahya bin Khalid al –Barmaki.

Dirar said to Hisham, “ How is Imamate established and confirmed? Hisham replied: “ As Allah established Prophethood.”

Hisham then said: “So he is a Prophet? Then said: “ No, because Prophethood is established by the Beings in heavens, and Imamate is established by the people of the earth. So the ratification of Prophethood is by the angels, and the ratification of the Imam is by the Prophet (peace be upon him). The two are established by the will of Allah”.

Dirar then said: What evidence do you have for that?

His ham replied: The necessity of this issue is…because there can be only three ways in it. Either that Allah has waived  (responsibility) (taklif) from the creations after the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), that he no more commands them or prohibits them from doing anything, and they have become similar to wild beast and other animals, which are not responsible. Or that people, after the Prophet (peace be upon him) have acquired knowledge similar to that of the Prophet, to the extent that one is not in need of the other, so that they will all be self-sufficient, and attain the truth without any differences among them.

Only the third option remains, which is that they are in need of others, because there must be knowledge to be established by the Messenger for them, in such a way that, he neither forgets, nor errs, nor deviates. He will be infallible and protected from sins, free of errors, one who all need, but who needs none.

He said: “What is the evidence for that?

Hisham answered “Eight evidences four are features of his lineage and four are his personal features. As for the four features from his lineage (descent), he will be from a known race and a well-known tribe and a well –known household, and that the Prophet pointed to him. There has never been a race in this creation as famous as the Arabs, of whom was the Prophet  (peace be upon him). If it was permissible that the evidence from Allah (Imam) for His creation can be from any other race of the non-Arabs, and it would have been that what Allah wanted to be a source of good will is a source of corruption. This will not be compatible with the wisdom and justice of Allah, that He imposes on mankind an obligatory duty that does not exist. As this is not permissible, so it is not permissible that (the Imam) will be from other than this race, due to his relation with the prophet. It is also not permissible that he will be of this race, if he will not be from this tribe, due to its close relation to the Prophet (peace be upon him), which is Quraish. As it is not permissible that he will be from this race, except that he is from this tribe, in similar ways, it will not be permissible that he (the Imam) will be from this tribe, except that he is from this household, for its close relation with the Prophet (peace be upon him). And as the members of this household, are many, and have quarreled on the issue of Imamate, due to its lofty position, with each one of them claiming it for himself, so it is not permissible except that the Prophet points to him in person, and by his name and his descent, so that all others will be excluded from claiming it.

As for the four personal features of (the Imam), they are that, he will be the most knowledgeable person as regards Allah’s injunctions and precepts, so that nothing small or big will be obscured to him; and that he should be free from all sins (infallible); and he should be the bravest of men, and the most generous of them.

Abdullah bin Yazid al-Ibadi then said: “ Why do you say that he (the Imam) will be the most knowledgeable of all men?”

Hisham said: “That is because if he is not conversant with all the injunctions, precepts and laws of Allah, we cannot be secured that he will not change the injunctions of Allah, so that anyone who commits an offence will not be punished accordingly, if it involves cutting up his hand, he will not execute it: so that he does not establish the limits of Allah on what He has commanded, being in the ling run, a source of corruption instead of reform as Allah wishes.

Then he said, “ How do you say that he is free from sins?”

He replied: “This is because if he were not free from sins, he will fall into error, so we cannot be secured that he will conceal what he has done, or conceal his friend or relation: and Allah will not set this person as his evidence on His creation.”

He then further asked:” How do you say that he (the Imam) is the bravest of people?” Hisham replied: “ This is because that group of Muslims who will resort to him in wars, Allah says “ And whoever turns his back to them on such a day—unless it is a stratagem of war, or to retreat to a troop of his own he indeed has drawn upon himself wrath from Allah…. So if he were not brave, he will draw the wrath of Allah on himself. It is not permissible that the one who draws Allah’s wrath will be Allah’s evidence upon his creation.”

Abdullah further asked him.” How do you say that he is the most generous of people? He replied: “ Because he is the keeper of Muslims treasures. For if he were not generous, his soul will crave for their width and he will take it, and that will be breach of trust: and it is not permissible that Allah will present a cheat as His evidence on His creation.(17)

Sheikh Saduq reported in his  ‘Amali, a speech of Hisham bin al-Hakam on the philosophy of infallibility (Ismah), from Muhammad bin Abi Umair who said: “I have never heard nor ever benefited from Hisham bin Hakam during my long companionship of him, better than this speech on the features of Imam’s infallibility. One day I asked him about the Imam. Is he infallible?” He replied “yes.” Then I said to him. “ What is the nature of infallibility in him and by what can it be known? He replied:

“ All sins have only (four) causes there is no more. It is either due to greed or envy or anger or desire. These are not attributable to him. It is not permissible that he will be covetous of this world, as it is under his control, as he is the keeper of the treasures of Muslims, then why should he have greed for anything? It is also not permissible that he will be envious of one above him, and there is none above him, then how can he be envious of one below him? It is also not permissible that he will be angry on anything of this world, except if it is for the sake of Allah, the Exalted. Allah has made it incumbent upon him to establish the limits of Allah (the penalties), and the blame of blamers will not deter him from that, nor pity will make him shy away from the punishment prescribed by Allah, until he establishes those punishments.  It is not permissible for him to follow desires and prefer this world to the hereafter, because Allah has made him to love the hereafter as he has made him to love this world. Have you ever seen anyone who left what is better, for a something good, or a soft and smooth garment for a coarse one or an ever-testing bliss for a transient one? (18)

The theory of Imamate says: Imamate is a divine affair and the appointment of a new Imam is made through the intervention of Allah, and there is no room for the wish of the former Imam in that. Amr bin Ash’ath said that he heard Imam Sadiq saying: “It seems that you think this affair is in the hands of one of us, He (Allah) places it where He wishes! No by Allah, it is a covenant from the Messenger of Allah which names a man then another, till it reaches its owner.” (19)

Isma'il bin Ammar said that he once asked Abu al-Hassan, the first (Kadhim) about the Imamate: “ Is it an obligation from Allah that the Imam must give a will and a covenant (for the one to come after him) before he leaves this world?” He replied “Yes” Then he said, Is it an obligation from Allah? “ He answered: “Yes”. (20)

Yahya bin Malik said that he asked Imam Rida on the statement of Allah, the Exalted: “ Verily! Allah commands that you should render back the trusts to those to whom they are due”.

He replied: The Imam return it to the Imam.” Then he said: “O Yahya by Allah it is not from him (the Imam), but it is an affair from Allah”. (21)

These are the most important abstracts in theology that has reached us from the first Imamate generation, which initiated theological discourse on Imamate, infallibility, text and will, as mentioned by the scholars who studied Twelver-Imam Shiites personalities, like, al-Kashi, Najashi, Saduq, Mufid, Tusi and Hilli. Other later theologians like al-Fadl bin Shadhan bin Khalil al-Azdi al-Nisapuri (who died in the middle of the third century of Hijrah). He wrote a number of works namely,  'Masa'il fi al-Imamah', ‘Kitab al-Imamah al-Kabir’ 'Al-Khisal fi al-Imamah', 'Fadl al-Muminin’ and 'Kitab al-Qa'im', and Al- Rawandi, the author of ‘Al-Imamah’ and Thubait bin Muhammad Abu Muhammad Askari, the companion of Abu Isa Al-Warraq, he was al-Hilli described him, ‘an intelligent theologian, and that the book attributed to Abu Isa al-Warraq was written by him,’ Fadl bin Abd Rahman, Abu Sahl Ismail bin Ali Nukhbati (d. 290 A.H) Abu Ja’far Abdul Rahman bin Qubbah (he died in the middle of the 4^th century of Hijrah), the writer of ‘Al-Insaf wa al-Intisaf fi Al-Imamah’, Sharif Murtada (d. 441 A.H), the writer of ‘Kitab al-Shafi fi al Imamah’ and other works.

The philosophy of infallibility (of the Imam) is based on the concept of absolute obedience of those in authority, and its not being relative, like refuting what the Imam said or refusing to obey him in disobedience (of Allah), and in vices if he commands that; or correcting him when his disobedience (fisq) for Allah is apparent; and when he strayed from the path (of guidance). This was the same concept that the Umayyad rulers were busy spreading, as they were demanding the Muslims to obey them in absolute terms, in what is good or evil. And this is what led the Shiite philosophers and theologians to in-consistency as regards the necessity of obeying Allah, who commands the believers to obey those in authority in the verse: “ O you who believe, obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you…” and the necessity of absolute obedience of the rulers, even if that involves vices and the impermissible.

Sheikh Tusi said in ‘Talkhis al-Shafi’: “What indicates the necessity of the Imam being infallible is what has been established of his being an example to be emulated. Don’t you see that he has been called Imam due to that? Imam is one to be emulated, due to this, it was said that the Imam in prayer must be emulated and followed… There is also a consensus among the Muslims that the Imam is to be followed in all aspects of the Shari’ah, even if they differ in the mode of appointing him. If it is established that he is to be followed in all aspects of Shari'ah, it is necessary that he is infallible (ma’sum). Because if he is not infallible, we cannot be secured in some of his actions, in which he might command us to kill some people; or to take the wealth of some, and the like, which are evil. It is incumbent on us to agree with him, by emulating him. It is not permissible that the Wise will make it compulsory on us emulating what is evil. If that is not permissible on Him to do that, that proves that the One whose obedience he has imposed is free from contracting evil, no one is like that except the infallible.”

Sheikh Tusi rejected the concept of relative obedience saying. “ If it said: Why do you deny that the emulation of the Imam is compulsory in what we know to be good, and as for that we know to be evil, or we doubt its true position, in that case his emulation is not incumbent! It will be said to him: This will deny the meaning of emulation completely, and will turn it from its purpose…. And it will necessarily follow that the Imam himself is following his subjects in this regard. The contradiction this can lead to is evident.

Sheikh Mufid said in ‘Al-Nukat al-I’ tiqadiyyah’: “The evidence for the necessity of the Imam being infallible is: if it is permissible for him to commit sins, and correcting him becomes compulsory he loses his status in the hearts, and he will not be emulated. The purpose of appointing him is so that he will be emulated and followed, so the purpose will be defeated. And if it is not compulsory to correct him, the necessity of prohibiting vice or evil is denied. This is null and void. He is the preserver of the law, if he were not infallible, his addition to or deletion (of the law) cannot be guaranteed.”(23)

Imamate Shiites believe that the Imams are like Prophets (peace be upon them) on the necessity of their being infallibles, as regards all vices and all kinds of disobedience from childhood to old age to death, intentionally or unintentionally, because they are the preservers of the law and those establishing it, similar to the position of a Prophet. Because the need for Imam, is such that the oppressed can get his right from the oppressor, and also for the annihilation of corruption and putting an end to strife (fitnah) .The Imam is compassionate, he prevents the powerful from transgressing, and encourages people to obey the commandments of Allah, and abstain from His prohibitions. He establishes the limits of Allah, and his obligations. He seizes the disobedient ones and gives corrective punishment to those who deserve it. If disobedience is possible in his case, and he committed such an act, all these benefits will be denied, and there will be a need for another Imam to infinity.” (24)

 

THE NECESSITY OF A DIVINE SCHOLAR WHO INTERPRETS THE QURAN

In addition to the issue of obedience and the necessity of the leader being infallible, some theologians look at the philosophy of infallibility from another angle, i.e. the necessity of the need for an interpreter of the Great Quran under the pretext of the inability of the Muslims in dealing with the Quran and benefiting from it directly. Kulayni reported in Al-Kafi the oldest tradition in this philosophy from Mansur bin Hazim who said: “ I said to the people “ Do you know that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) was Allah’s evidence to His creation? They said: “ yes.” I said after that” After the demise of the messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), who was the evidence on Allah’s creation? They answered “ The Quran”. I looked to the Quran and observed that the Murji'ite, the Qadarite and the infidel (Zindiq) all present it as their evidence, in a way that they overcome their opponents, and then I understand that the Quran can never be evidence without a custodian. Whatever he says on anything it is the truth. I then said to them: “ Who is the custodian of the Quran? They replied: “ Ibn Mas’ud is knowledgeable, so also Umar and Hudhayfah". I said: “All of it? “ They said “ No I have never found anyone said to know its entirety except Ali. Bear witness that Ali was the custodian of the Quran. (25).

Sheikh Tusi said: It has been established that not all that was needed in the Shari’ah, is based on absolute evidence from consensus or Ijma' or the like. Not all the evidences in many cases can be argued in both ways … If that has been confirmed and Shari'ah and its application has been imposed on us, then there must be an authority through whom we can reach the truth, in any issue wherein there are conflicting opinions. That is the Imam we are advocating.” (27)

He also said: “It is established that the Imam is the leader in all aspects of religion, and the one executing all judgments, all rulings, delicate or manifest or obscured. It is not possible that he will not know the entire injunctions.” That is his attribute, because what is established in the sight of those who possess intellect is the evilness of giving the affair to one who does not know it, even if those who appointed him have a way of possessing the like of his knowledge of what he rules. There is no effect to the possibility of his learning and his having access to the way of knowledge. That is because, even though that is possible, his leadership cannot be right, if he lacks knowledge of what has been given over to him.” (28)

Sheikh Tusi puts as a necessary condition for the Imam prior knowledge of everything, as he rejected dependence on Ijtihad as regards what will happen in the future or when there will be need for it. He said: “ If it were said, why shouldn’t the Imam be not knowing the entire injunctions related to his rule, only to resort to using juristic analogy (Ijtihad) whenever he needed to pass a judgment, or he resorts to narrations from singular reporters, or even he asks scholars, just as the ordinary person refers to them, or that he withdraws from what he has no knowledge of till it becomes apparent and clear to him through one of the means of acquiring knowledge. All this constitutes an accepted way of worshiping Allah.”

It will be replied: “This is the statement of one who thinks that we only show as evil the leadership of the Imam who has no complete knowledge of all injunctions, because he has no other means of knowledge. We have explained that the existence of such means is like its non-existence if the knowledge attributed to Allah is not available. Definitely this kind of leadership is evil due to the lack of knowledge. There is no need for us to discuss what they consider means of acquiring knowledge which the Imam can resort to. This is because, even if it is ascertained that all of them are means to knowledge and learning, the injunction will not affect what we have certified. In real fact, most of what the questioner mentioned, will not lead to true knowledge in our view? As for Qiyas (analogical deduction), narrations from singular reporters and Ijtihad, as explained earlier, they do not constitute sources of knowledge in our view, and so cannot be a means of worshipping Allah. As for the resorting of the ordinary person to the scholar, to us it is not possible for him to emulate anyone else, but it is necessary for him to seek for knowledge by the means that lead to true knowledge. If that is permissible his case will not be like the Imam. This is because that was permissible only due to his not being a ruler over him (or one having authority over him). So it is necessary that he follow the scholar and act upon that. We only show the evil of presenting the one without knowledge for his being the authority in all affairs. We will never permit that because of his being ignorant of some of (the affairs). As we do not in accordance with our principles permit that the rulers resort to the scholars, then they judge based on that, as is allowed by our opponents, due to the reason mentioned above.” (29)