The development of shiite political thought from shura to wilayat al-faqih

The Abbasids who became victorious in the year 132 A.H found themselves in great discomfiture. They dissociated themselves from the old Shiite ideas, and altered their political theory, that is by redesigning the source of the legality of their nascent regime, depending on the right of their grandfather Abbas bin AbdulMutallib to inherit the Prophet (S.A.W) more than his cousin, Ali bin Abi Talib.                                            

In the sermon of Abu Abbas al-Saffah, who became the first Abbasid Caliph reccve uath paid allegiance in Kufah on 12^th Rabi Awwal 132 A.H, he described the children of Abbas as the true protectors and defenders of Islam and the Muslins, and Islam’s fortress those who maintain it (Islam) and its real helpers. Then he pointed to their relationship with the prophet; and that Allah has favored them with being the Prophets relations and his kith and kin. He then recited several verses of the Quran, i.e. “ Allah wishes only to remove evil deeds and sins from you, O members of the household (of the Prophet), and to purify you with a thorough purification”. Say (O Muhammad), “ No reward do I ask of you for this except to be kind to relations”. “And warn your tribe (O Muhammad), of near kindred”. “What Allah gave as booty (Fay) to His Messenger, from the people of the townships—it is for Allah, His Messenger, the kindred of the Prophet (peace be upon him); “And know that whatever of war-booty that you may gain, verily one –fifth of it is assigned to Allah, and to the Messenger, and to the near relatives of the Prophet (peace be upon him). He then criticized the views of the Saba'iyyah (followers of Abdullah bin Saba') who were inclined to the views of Kisaniyyah, saying, “Saba'iyyah claim wrongly that some people other than us have more right to ruler ship and Caliphate than us, evil be their faces.”

Dawud bin Ali, the uncle of the Caliph Abu Abbas has pointed out, in his speech of paying allegiance (bay’ah) to his nephew, to the new source of legality for the Abbasid state, as the inheritance of Abbas. He said, “ the Muslims are now in the covenant of Allah. His messenger and Abbas.”

Mas’udi mentioned in ‘Muruj al-Dhahab’ “The Rawandites, who were the Shiites from    the children of Abbas from Khurasan and elsewhere used to say: The  Messenger of Allah (S.W.T)  has died, the most deserving of people for the Imamate after him was Abbas bin Abd al-Mutallib, for he was his uncle, his heir, and the closest of his relatives. Allah has said: “And blood relations among each other have closer personal ties in the Decree of Allah. And people have usurped his right from him, and have done injustice to him, till the time when Allah returned it to them, despite the fact that he has never abandoned the Caliphate. They dissociated themselves from Abu Bakr and Umar. They legalized the oath of allegiance to Ali bin Abi Talib, due to its legitimization by Abbas, i.e., in his statement “ O my nephew! Come to me I will pay my allegiance to you, so that none will oppose you. Likewise due to the statement of Dawud bin Ali on the pulpit  (minbar) of Kufah on the day allegiance was paid to Abu Abbas, “ O people of Kufah, no Imam appeared among you after, the Messenger of Allah, except Ali bin Abi Talib, and the leader among you now i.e. Abu Abbas Al-Saffah.” (33)

The Abbasid Caliph Mahdi Muhammad bin Abi Ja’far Mansur confirmed this theoretical shift, when he established the Imamate of Abbas bin Abd al- Mutallib after the Messenger of Allah, and called the Rawandites to it, and to pay allegiance to him. He said, “ Abbas was his uncle his heir and the closest person to him. Definitely Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali, and all those who became Caliphs and claimed Imamate after the Messenger of Allah, were usurpers who jumped to what they have no right on.” (34)

Mahdi established the Imamate and the Khilafah of Abbas bin Abd al-Mutallib after the Prophet (peace be upon him), for his companions and allies, as well as the Muslim community (Ummah). He then established it for Abdullah bin Abbas, after the death of Abbas. After Abdullah he established for Ali bin Abdullah known as Sajjad and after him, for Muhammad bin Ali bin Abdullah, and then for Ibrahim bin Muhammad, known as the Imam, and after him for his brother Abdullah bin Muhammad Al-Saffah, then for his brother Abdullah Mansur, the father of Mahdi.

The Rawandites based on the above said, “ The Messenger of Allah, the Exalted has been received (by Allah), the person most deserving of the Imamate after him was Abbas bin Abd al-Mutallib, because he was his uncle, heir and his closest relation, Allah has said, “And blood relations among each other have closer personal ties.” People did usurp his right and committed injustice to him till the time Allah returned it to them. There is no Imamate among women. Fatimah has no inheritance as regards the Imamate. Cousins and grandchildren cannot inherit anything with the existence of the uncle. So Ali and the children of Fatimah cannot inherit the Imamate, in the presence of Abbas. Due it this, Abbas and his children became, of all people, the most deserving of it. (35)

In this way, the Rawandites developed a political theory based on inheritance and the right of blood relationship, and discarded the Shura, when they said, “the election of the Imam by the Ummah is invalid and a mistake. It can only be valid through its establishment and a covenant in the past by the one who accepts and appoints him to success him after him.” Jahiz has authored, a book, on this issue and entitled it, “The Book of the Imamate of Children of Abbas, arguing in favor of this opinion.

Naturally, Muhammad bin Abdullah (Dhu al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah), who was the greatest leader of the Shiites at that time, did reject the new Abbasid theory, as he rejected paying allegiance to Saffah and Mansur. He wrote a long letter to the latter mentioning in it, “Definitely It is our right, you claimed this affair using us, and fought for it with our followers and supporters, and encouraged people (to fight) through our virtue. Definitely our father, Ali was the owner of the will, and he was the Imam. How did you inherit his right, when his children are alive? “Mansur wrote a long reply to his letter, saying in it, “As for your statement that you are the children of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), Allah, the Exalted has said in His Book, “Muhammad (peace be upon him) is not the father of any of your men,” but you were the children of his daughter, it is a very close relationship, but it cannot inherit, it cannot inherit leadership. (37)

Isfahani in his “Maqatil al-Talibiyyin reported that Sadiq allowed his two sons Musa and Abdullah to join the revolt of Muhammad bin Abdullah in Madinah. Muhammad had wanted to exempt them from participating in it, but Ja’far insisted on that, as an expression of his support for the movement of Dhu al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah.

 

THE GENERAL SHIITE THEORY

The issue of revolting against the Umayyads served as a rallying force for all the different factions of Shiite movement in the beginning of the second century of Hijrah. The general populace of Shiites did not generally distinguish between the various Imams from the Prophet’s household. Due to this, they used to join any movement led by anyone of them. Salim bin Abi Hafs, who was the first to call people to the Imamate of Sadiq after the death of his father, later joined the movement of Zayd, together with some of his companions, namely, Kathir al–Nawa, Abu Isma'il or Kathir bin Isma'il bin Nafi al-Nawa, Hakam bin Uyaynah, Salmah bin Kahil and Abu al –Miqdam Thabit al-Haddad. (39)

Abu al-Jarud Ziyad bin Abi Ziyad al-Hamadhani al-Kufi was initially supporting Imam Baqir, and then he shifted to the party of his brother Zayd bin Ali, together with a large member of his companions. Despite the fact that he was an extremist as regards the companions, for he blamed them for not recognizing Imam Ali and electing him, he denied the existence of any clear text on the Imamate of Ali. He said it was by illustration, not by name. Due to this, the Jarudites based their theory of Imamate on the basis of challenge and revolt (revolution), and not on the basis of a text. They believed in including the children of Hassan and Hussain in the Imamate, and rejected confining this right to the children of Hussain alone, as well as the existence of any kind of texts on this. (41)

As a result of that they said: “The Imamate of Ali bin Abi Talib is established at the time he called the people, and made his affair manifest” Hussain became the Imam later at the time he revolted; then Zayd bin Ali … then anyone who called to the obedience of Allah from the family of Muhammad, is the Imam. (42)

The Jarudites and the Zaydites generally rejected the confinement of the Imamate to the children of Hussain, and considered anyone saying that, as having gone out of the fold of Islam. They said “ It is to be decided by consultation among the entire children of the two. And that the Imamate after Hussain has become by the election and consensus of the Prophets household on one person among them, and their acceptance of him, and his subsequent taking up of arms. (43) They went to the extreme against the Imams of the line of Hussain, and alleged that anyone of them who claim the Imamate, while sitting in his house lowering down his curtains, is an unbeliever and a Mushrik (one who associate any thing with Allah), so also anyone who follows him on that or who accepts his Imamate.  (44)

Despite the Jarudites being the most extreme sect on the issue of a text, in the beginning of the second century of Hijrah, they never said that the Imamate would only be established through a text till the Day of Resurrection. They however, confined the text to Imam Ali, Hassan and Hussain, only saying: The Imamate after that is through Shura (consultation action) within the progeny of Imam Ali to the Day of Resurrection. Any person from among them who appeared and is qualified and deserving, he is the Imam. (45) Another statement from a section of the Shiites at that time, saying that the Imamate has ceased after Hussain, supports the above position. If added that the Imams were only three, i.e. those named and appointed by the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), through his will, and he made them evidences on the people, and leaders after him, one after the other, and including the rejection of the Imamate of anyone after them. (46)

2.                              2.      Ash’ari al –Qummi: Al Maqalat wa al-Firaq p.21-22

3.                              3.      ibid.

4.                              4.      Al –Mufid: Al-Fusul al-Mukhtarah, P. 240

5.                              5.      IBM Qutaybah: Al-Imamah wa al-Siyasah, Vol.2 P.130

6.                              6.      ibid. vol, 2, P.131-132, Ash’ari: Al-Maqalat wa al-Firaq. P.65, Tarikh al-Ya’qubi, Vol, P .40 .Al –Isfahani: Muqatil Al-Talibiyyin, P.126, Al-Mas’udi, Al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf, P.292. , Kulayni: Al-Kafi, vol. 1, P. 372

7.                              7.      Ali bin Babawaih Al-Saduq: Al-Imamah wa al-Tabsirah min al-Hayrah, P-18

8.                              8.      Al-Iyashi: Al-Tafsir. Vol. 2, P. 291

9.                              9.      Saduq: Ikmal al-Din, P. 291

10.                          10.  Saduq: Ikmal al-Din, P.210

11.                          11.  Saffar: Basair al-Darajat, P. 176

12.                          12.  ibid. P. 178

13.                          13.  ibid, P. 180

14.                          14.  ibid. P. 181

15.                          15.  Kulayni Al-Kafi, Vol.1, P.305, Vol.1 P. 257

16.                          16.  ibid, vol. 1. P. 257

17.                          17.  Tafsir Furat Ibn Ibrahim al-Kufi, P. 49, Tabari: Vol. 3, P 267

18.                          18.  Nubakhti, Firaq al-Shi’ah

19.                          19.  Kulayni: Al-Kafi, Vol-1, P.307, Mufid: Al-Irshad, P. 272

20.                          20.  Saffar: Basa'ir al-Darajat, P. 17

21.                          21.  Kulayni: Al-Kafi, Vol.1 P.240

22.                          22.  Saffar: Basa'ir al-Darajat, P. 148

23.                          23.  Kulayni, op. cit vol.1 P 278, 289

24.                          24.  Saffar, op.cit, P 174-176, Mufid, of cit, P. 274-275

25.                          25.  Saffar, op-cit, P. 158

26.                          26.  Kulayni, op.cit, Vol. 1, P-241

27.                          27.  Saffar, op.cit, P. 142

28.                          28.  ibid. p. 326

29.                          29.  Kulayni, op.cit, Vol. 1 P.241

30.                          30.  Nubakhti, op-cit, P.62, Mufid op-cit., P. 268, Isfahani, op. cit, P. 167, Tabari, vol, 9, P.49

31.                          31.  Nubakhti, op. cit. P.62

32.                          32.  Tarikh al-Tabari, Vol. 6, p. 43 & 83, Ibn Al-Athir: Al-Kamil, Vol. 5 P. 315.

33.                          33.  ibid.

34.                          34.  Mas’udi: Muruj al-Dhahab vol.3 P. 252

35.                          35.  Ash’ari: Al-Maqalat wa al-Firaq P.252

36                            36     Ash’ari op.cit. P 67

37                            37    Tabari Vol6, P. 198,Ibn al-Athir, op-cit Vol.5 P 255

38                            38    Tabari: Vol 6. P.188 –190, Ibn al-Athir, op-cit. vol. 5 P.255

39                            39    Al- Isfahani, op. cit. P. 277

40                            40    Muhammad bin Ali al- Ardabili al- Ha’iri. Jami’ al-Ruwat, Vol.2, p.544 Al-Shahristani: Al-Milal wa al-Nihal, Vol.1 p160.

41                            41    Mufid: Al Masa’il al-Jarudiyyah fi Ta’yin al-Khilafah wa al-Imamah fi Walad al- Hussain bin Ali, P.2, Mufid: Al-Thaqalan, P.10

42                            42    Nubakhti op, cit, P, 54

43                            43    Ash’ari, op.cit, P. 19

44                            44    Nubakhti, op, cit pp, 48 –49, Ash’ari al Qummi: Al-Maqalat wa al-Firaq-, p. 19

45 ibid.

46 Nubakhti:op.cit.p.54

CHAPTER THREE

 

 

THE INCEPTION OF IMAMATE THOUGHT

After the Kissanite development that took place in the Shiite ranks at the end of the first century of Hijra, revolving around the idea of the will from the Noble Prophet in favor of Imam Ali, which he in turn, transferred to Hassan and Hussain at the time of his death; then it went to Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah, which he later bestowed unto his son Abu Hashim Abdullah, that development that led to the fact ionization of the Shiite movement into several sects at the end of the first century, when the various factions claim (possessing) a will from Abu Hashim. This eventually led to a big internal strife, in the ranks of the household of the Prophet, being divided into Abbasids Alawites Talibites, Fatimides, Hassanites, Hussainites, Zaydites and Ja’farites. After that development, and what became of the Shiites, in terms of small groups, another development took place in their midst in the beginning of the second century of Hijra, with the confinement of the Imamate to the household of Hussain, and appointing, from among them, the eldest son of the past immediate Imam, and the claim of infallibility and divine appointment for the Imam.

 

UMAYYAD POLITICAL THEORY 

It may be that the claim of infallibility of the Imam from the household of the Prophet was a reaction from some Shiites, on the appointment of the Umayyad rulers of their sons to succeed them, after them on the pretext of general good (Maslahah) of the Ummah, as Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan has said when he appointed his son Yazid, as the Caliph after him. They also claimed infallibility for themselves, so also absolute powers, including their demand from the Muslims absolute and unconditional obedience, even if that constitutes an act of disobedience to Allah, the Exalted.

This doctrine became clear in the statement of Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan when he entered Kufah, after his agreement with Imam Hassan: “Surely I fought you, so that I will be a ruler over you, and Allah has bestowed that to me, though you detest it. (3) And his statement to an Iraqi delegation which came to him in Syria: “The Earth belongs to Allah, I am the Khalifah, (Vicegerent) of Allah, whatever I took is for me, and whatever I left for the people, is a favor from me… it is a rule given to us by Allah. (4)

Ziyad bin Abih, Mu'awiyah’s governor in Iraq, said in his famous sermon (Al-Batra) to the people of Basrah “ O people we have become your leaders who repel harm from you. We rule you with the power of Allah given to us, and we protect you from harm by means of Allah’s bounty given to us. We have on you (the duty of) absolute obedience in what we love, and you have on us (as a right), justice and fair play, in what we have been given charge. Make our justice and bounty as your right by advising us rightly. (5)

 Dahhak bin Qays al-Fihri said, when the people of Iraq opposed Mu’awiyah’s call to give a covenant on appointing his son Yazid as Khalifah (after him) in the year 46 A.H:

“What has Hussain or his children to do with the rule of Allah, wherein He has made Mu’awiyah, His vicegerent on His earth? (6)

Yazid bin Mu’awiyah said in his funeral ovation to his father, “Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan was one of the servants of Allah, favored by Him with the Khilafah, bestowed him and established his (rule)…. Allah has put on our shoulders what was given to him” (7).

Rabah bin Zanba’ al –Judhami said to the people of Madinah when they were reluctant in paying allegiance to Yazid:

“ We are not calling you to Lakhm or Judham or Kalb, but we are calling you to Quraish and to whom Allah has given this affair exclusively i.e. Yazid bin Mu’awiyah. (8)

Baladhuri in ‘Ansab al-Ashraf’ said: When AbdulMalik bin Marwan wanted to go over to Syria, he delivered a sermon to the people in Kufah, and showed them the high status of the ruler, and said to them “ He is Allah ‘s shadow on earth “ He also motivated them on obedience (of the ruler) and on remaining with the community. (9)

Hajjaj bin Yusuf has also said to the people of Iraq, “ The Commander of the Faithful AbdulMalik bin Marwan was placed in authority in his land by Allah, and is pleased with him as an Imam on His servants.” (10) Hajjaj was the first to use the word al-Ma’sum, (infallible) in describing Abdul Malik bin Marwan and that was in his letter, in which he said: For the servant of Allah, AbdulMalik, the Leader of the Faithful and the Khalifah (vicegerent) of     the Lord of the worlds, supported with authority, the infallible from error in words or deeds, through the protection of Allah, which is necessary for those who possess His affair.” (11).

Marwan bin Muhammad has said in a congratulatory letter to Walid bin Yazid, in the year 125 A.H: “May Allah bless the Leader of the Faithful for what has come to him of authority on His servants and the inheritance of His land. The leader of the faithful has a special place in the sight of Allah, who strengthens him with the best of Lands, and he did what Allah showed him as right, and performed independently what he has take of it. His rule has been affirmed in the earlier scriptures, by its appointed time. Allah has favored him with it, of all His creatures, after seeing their condition. So he put that responsibility on him with all its hardships and made him in charge of the affairs.”(12).

Historians mention a long letter for Walid bin Yazid on bay'ah (paying allegiance) to his two sons as crown princes. He expatiated in it the Umayyad theory of the Caliphate. It is mentioned therein: “ Allah has appointed the Caliphs to succeed one another on the principles of Prophet hood, when He took the soul of His Prophet (peace be upon him), So the caliphs appeared one after the other, on what Allah has given as inheritance to them of the affairs of his Prophets (peace be upon them), and made them succeed them on that. No one opposes them, except Allah that annihilates him. None leaves their community except Allah destroys him. None despises their authority and questions Allah’s destiny regarding them, except Allah gives them power over him and imposes them on him, and makes him as example and exhortation for others. Likewise Allah does for those who have abandoned the obedience, of which he has been commanded to stick to, and to prefer it to anything else. It is through the Caliphate that Allah protects those on earth, and makes them to depend on it… anyone who receives a portion of it, is a friend of Allah, obedient to him and on His right path. He will receive the good of this world and the next. Any one who deserted and detested and disobeyed Allah regarding it, he will lose his share, disobey his Lord and also lose this world and the next. He will be of those overpowered by misery and wretchedness… Obedience is the foundation of this affair and its summit, reins, basis, preservation and support, after the words of Ikhlas (La ilah illa Al-lah)- ‘There is no deity except Allah’, by which Allah has distinguished between His servants, due to the abandonment of obedience and its loss and the turning away from it, and changing it. Due to this Allah destroyed anyone who went astray and became rebellious, exceeded limits, and left Divine guidance on right cousins and ways of piety, etc. so stick to the obedience of Allah regarding whatever comes over to you, or whatever you achieved and what ever befalls you of events. You should seek Allah’s pleasure through it, for you have seen how Allah gives status to the obedient ones, how He has raised their positions, how clear He made their evidences, prevail and how He obliterated the falsehood of those who opposed and hated them, who wanted to extinguish the light of Allah in their possession”.

He then discussed the system of Crown Prince (Wilayah al-Ahd) and Khilafah through hereditary means saying: “The affair of this covenant is part of the perfection of Islam, and the accomplishment of what Allah has bestowed on His people in terms of great favors. It is also part of what Allah will give of great reward for anyone who did it and uttered it with his tongue, and part of what Allah will cause to have great effects on the Muslims… Praise Allah, your lord, who is kind to you, and the one who has guided you to in this affair of  (crowing a prince), which Allah has made a source of peace and tranquility upon which you depend. The leader of the faithful, since his ascension to the throne has been giving utmost importance and concern to this issue, cause of his knowledge of the status of this affair with the Muslims, and what Allah has shown them of the affairs they envy, one towards the other, and of what he gives to them of what He has destined for them, and what He chooses for him and them, and what Allah decrees for him and them on that what his friend who rules (decides) The leader of the faithful found it right to take a covenant from you similar to the covenant you are fulfilling now, on similar terms. He know the place of that affair which Allah has made a source of immunity from error, a success righteousness and a life, the leader of the faithful has made Al-Hakam bin Amir al-Muminin and Uthman bin Amir al-Muminin the Caliph after him. The two are of those whom the Leader of the faithful hopes Allah has created for this purpose and has shaped and perfected them in all virtues. Those whom he will appoint to succeed him due to their good understanding (of affairs), right religions conduct, integrity and profound knowledge of people’s welfare--- so pay allegiance to Al-Hakam bin Amir al-Muminin in the name of Allah, and His blessing and them to his brother after him on total obedience. This is the issue which you sought to delay and you were in a haste to see you praise Allah for making it to pass and destining it for you--- We seek and implore Allah other them whom there is no god… that He blesses, the Leader of the Faithful and you in what he has decreed on his tongue of that affair, and that he makes what comes of it, a means of prosperity and happiness and competition (towards good). That rests with Him. None has power over that except Him.

The basis therefore, of the Umayyads calling on the Muslims to obey their Caliphs in absolute sense is the statement of Allah the Exalted “ Obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you”, and interpreting obedience to mean absolute obedience in virtue as well as in vice.