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The development of shiite political thought from shura to wilayat al-faqih


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CHAPTER TWO

 

 

 


FROM  SHURA  (CONSULTATION)…TO        HEREDITARY RULE                

 

 

THE KISSANITE THEORY


 

 

The early Imamate Shiite historians (Nukhbati, w-Ashari al- Qummi and al- Kashi) recorded the first development that appeared in the ranks of the Shiites in the time of Imam Amir al-Muminin Ali bin Abi Talib (peace be upon him) on the hands of the so-called Abdullah bin Saba, said to be a Jew, who later accepted Islam. Nukhbati said of him that he was the first to spread the claim that Ali is the right leader (Imam). He used to say in his Jewish religion that Yusha bin Nun was the Wasiy of Musa (one to lead after him, through his will). This same idea he propagated in Islam, as regards Ali in relation to the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) He showed absolved himself his innocence from his enemies, and showed open enmity to his opponents. He scorned and attacked Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman and the rest of the companions. (1)



It does not matter whether Abdullah bin Saba was a real or mythical figure, for the Shiite historians record the initial appearance of the earlier development in the Shiite political thought, based on the idea of personal and spiritual “Will”(Wasiyyah), from the Noble Prophet to Imam Ali. So also the attribution of political meaning to that (Will), based on the analogy of the “Will” from Prophet Musa (peace be upon him) to Yusha’ bin Nun, and the hereditary nature of the priesthood in the progeny of Yusha.

Even though this statement is weak and was confined to few people among the Shiites at the time of Imam Ali and also that Imam Ali, himself has rejected it in very strong terms, and warned those making that statement, that trend found a fertile ground to spread its ideas, when Muawiyah appointed his son, Yazid to lead the Ummah after him. The main problem faced by the people of this trend was the lack of support or outright rejection of their claim by Imam Hassan, and Imam Hussain, and the political isolation chosen by Imam Ali bin Hussain, this led the advocates of this doctrine to gather around Imam Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah, and to consider him as Wasiy of Imam Ali, especially when he accepted the leadership of the Shiites after the murder of Imam Hassan. The Sabaiyyah infiltrated the ranks of the Kisanniyyah movement, which wanted to avenge the murder of Imam Hussain, under the leadership of Mukhtar bin Ubaidah al-Thaqafi.

 

         Mukhtar, who was leading the Shiites for Kufah did claim that, Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah has ordered him to avenge the killing (of Imam Hussain), by killing Hussains murderers, and that he is the Imam after his father. Mukhtar did not consider the caliphs before Ali, such as Abu Baker, Umar and Uthman as unbelievers. But he considered those who fought Imam Ali at the battles of Siffin and the Camel as unbelievers. (2) 



Ash’ari al-Qummi mentions that: The security guard of Mukhtar (Kisan), who influenced him towards the demand for the blood of Hussain, and who pointed to him his murderers, being his intelligence chief and executor of his plots, was more eager in words, actions and killing. He used to say that, Mukhtar is the choice of Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah (by his will) and his representative. He used to consider all those leaders before Ali as unbelievers, so also those who participated in the battles of Siffin and Camel. (3)

Despite the early falls of the kingdom rule by Mukhtar after just a short time the Kisaniyyah movement that assembled around its spiritual leader, Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah, started declaring that “ The Imam must be in Ibn Hanafiyyah and in his progeny”. (4)

On his deathbed, Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah, appointed his son Abdullah (Abu Hashim) as the leader after him. He directed to seek for the Caliphate, as far as he could. He informed the Shiites of making him their leader. So Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Ali became the Leader of the Shiites. (5)

At the end of the first century of Hijrah, Abu Hashim became the undisputable leader of the Shiites in the absence of any formidable contender. The kisaniyyah movement disintegrated after him into many several sects each one leader of a sect claiming that he chose him and gave him his will. The Abbasids also claimed that Abu Hashim chose Muhammad bin Ali bin Abdullah bin Abbas, and that he said to him the affairs and the seeking of the Caliphate are in your hands after me. So he appointed him and called as witness, leaders of the Shiites, then he dies. Muhammad bin Ali, by that became the leader of Shiites, and the advocator of the Caliphate till his death. When he was about to die, he appointed his son, Ibrahim as the leader. He lived as the leader of Shiites and the advocator of the Caliphate after his father. (6)

Janahiyyun (Janahites) claimed that he (Ibrahim) chose Abdullah bin Muawiyah bin Abdullah bin Ja’far bin Abi Talib, who appeared in Kufah in the year 128 A.H, as the leader. He established a kingdom that extended up to Persia in the last years of the Umayyad rule.  Hassaniyyu also claim that he chose their leader Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Hassan bin Hassan (Dhu al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah) as the leader after him.

Anyway, the issue of will (Wasiyyah) has developed, from the normal and personal will of the Prophet (peace be upon him) to Imam Ali, to the issue of political will from (Ali) to his son Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah, and after him to his son Abu Hashim. This is what led to conflicts between the different Shiites factions, and the claim of each one of them that he was the only one legally chosen.

 

 

 



 

 

IMAM BAQIR’S POLITICAL THEORY

 

While the different movements of the Shiites were preparing for a showdown against the Umayyad rule and (were calling for) retaliation for the murder of Hussain, and were engulfed in internal stripe, Imam Muhammad bin Ali Baqir in the year 94 A.H., and after the death of his father, Imam Sajjad, entered the political and intellectual struggle. He fought a serious battle to wrestle the leadership of Shiites from his cousin Abu Hashim and his followers, and to consolidate it in the lineage of Fatimah and the house of Hussain. He considered any claim to Imam ship without the legal right, as inventing lie against Allah, even if the claimant is one of the son Ali bin Abi Talib. (7)



Imam Baqir did depend in his claim to Imam ship and in seeing himself as the most deserving of that position, on the call for retaliation against the murder of his grand father Imam Hussain, and   the subsequent leadership of the Shiites in attaining that goal. He used to say: “ And whoever is killed wrongfully, We have given his heir the authority to demand Qisas” he also said that the verse: “The prophet is closer to the believers than their own selves and his wives are their mothers (as regards respect and marriage), and blood relations among each other have closer personal ties in the Decree of Allah” was revealed on the use of leadership, and that it revolves around the progeny of Hussain after his death. So we have more right in the affair and have more right as regards the Prophet (S.A.W) than the believers and the Muhajirin. The children of Ja’far and Abbas have no share of the affair, nor do any of the lineages of the progeny of Abd al-Mutallib, or even the progeny of Hassan bin Ali. No one of the followers of Muhammad has any share except us. (8)

He also says, in this regard: “May Allah bless my uncle Hassan! Hassan did shield 40,000 swords after the death of Amir al-Muminin, and handed them over to Mu'awiyah. Muhammad bin Ali shielded 70,000 fighting swords, if a calamity may befall them, they will all die. Hussain then emerged and put his life before Allah together with 70,000 men. Who has more right to demand for retaliation than us? By Allah, we are the rightful owners of the affair; among us are the Saffah and Mansur. Allah says “ And whoever is killed wrongfully we have given his heir the authority (to demand Qisas). We are the heirs of Hussain bin Ali and on his religion. (9)

Abdullah bin Hassan bin Hassan was however, rejecting the idea of confining the Imamate to the house of Hussain. He says disparagingly “How did Imamate become confined to the children of Hussain m and not of Hussain, while the two are the leaders of the youths in paradise? They are equal in virtue, only that Hassan has another virtue over Hussain, that of being the elder. It becomes mandatory then that leadership (Imamate) must be in the one with more virtues”. (10)

In an attempt from Imam Baqir to transcend this difference and to end it decisively, and to enhance the legality of his demand for leading the Shiites, he depended, in addition to the demand of blood relationship, on the issue of “possessing the weapon of the Prophet of Allah “ and his inheriting it from his grandparents: as he used to say: “The position of the weapon to us is similar to that of Ark of the children of Israel, Wherever it is found, that will be where leadership will be. So wherever the weapon is found, that is where knowledge is”. (11)

He asked while refuting the Kisaniyyah “Cant they say with whom is the weapon of Prophet of Allah? … The sign that was on his sword, was also on his two sides, if they but know.” (12)

Muhammad bin Hassan al-Saffar one of the pivots of Imamiyyah Shiites in the 3rd century of Hijrah –used to say: “Ali bin Hussain preferred his son Muhammad Baqir at the time of his death with the possessing of the shield that contain the weapon of the Messenger of Allah. His brother challenged him on it, and he said to them. “By Allah you have no right on it, if you have any right on it, he would not have given it to me.” (13)

Saffar used to say, Imam Baqir used to point to the right of Imam to the caliphate based on the evidence of his inheriting the weapon of the Messenger of Allah, and that he mentioned that as an evidence before the people of Shura (consultation). (14)

Imam Baqir depended on his inheritance of books from his father for seeking the Imamate. Kulayni said, He did use the evidence of knowledge against his brother Zayd bin Ali, who was preparing for a revolt, and was trying to assume the leadership of the Shiites. He asked him if he knows the lawful and the unlawful, and advised him not to assume or seek leadership before sufficient perusal of the lawful and the unlawful.

One day his (Baqir‘s) brother, Zayd came to him, and with letters from the people of Kufah, calling him in those letters to go to them, and telling him of their meeting, and instructing him to rebel. Abu Jafar said to him:

“Are these letters their own initiative, or a reply of what you have written to them and what you called them to? “He said: No it is the peoples initiative, for their knowledge of our right and our close relation to the Messenger of Allah, and also due to what they find in the Book of Allah, the Exalted, and the obligation of our love and obedience; and due to the harshness and difficulty of our situation Abu Ja'far then said to him:

“Obedience is an obligation from Allah the Exalted and a Tradition he established in the earlier people, and in the same way He will maintain it in the later people. Obedience will be for one of us, while love will be for all. The command of Allah comes to His beloved friends (Awliya) through a transmitted injunction, clear destiny and confirmed judgment and in an appointed time, let not those who have no certainty of faith discourage you, they can avail you nothing against Allah don’t be in a haste. For surely Allah does not bring things before their appointed time due to the haste of people, you should not go before Allah, and calamity will incapacitate and overpower you.”

Zayd became infuriated at this juncture and then said:

“The Imam among us is not that who sits in his house and lower his curtains and who discourage Jihad, but he is that one who protects what is in his possession, and fight for the sake of Allah a true Jihad, and who defended his followers and safeguard his harem”, Abu Jafar then said, “Do you know my brother, any right for yourself, of what you attributed to it which you cam buttress with a verse from the Book of Allah or an evidence from the Messenger of Allah or you give a similitude of it? For definitely Allah has made some things lawful, while others he has made unlawful, and He has made certain things obligatory and gave similitudes and examples and established ways. He did not made the Imam, who is maintaining his affairs before, an ambiguity go before him in an affair before its time, or that he fights before the right time for Allah the exalted has said regarding hunting… He has set appointed time for every thing. For every matter there is a decree, If you are quite sure of your affair, and you are certain of your matter you can go on: otherwise you should not embark on an affair of which you are in doubt and is ambiguous. Don’t try to bring about the end of a rule, which fruits have not finished, and which has not come to an end and the decree has not been fulfilled. You have seen disintegration, and humiliation of the followed and the followers I seek refuge in Allah from the Imam who has lost his time and in which the follower is more knowledgeable than the followed. Do you want O my brother to revive the way of the people who disbelieved the signs of Allah and disobeyed his Messenger, I seek refuge in Allah, O my brother, that you may be crucified tomorrow, (then tears fell from his eyes and flowed). He then said, Allah is between us and those exposed our secret and deny us our right, secret and who attribute us to other than our grandfather, and those who said regarding us, what we did not say about ourselves. (15)

Kulayni is reporting this dialogue in al-Kafi in the fourth century of Hijrah…. It is likely that the Imamate Shiites fabricated it in a later date against the Zaydiyyah (Zaydite) Shiites, but it clearly reveals the evidences of Imam Baqir against his brother based on knowledge, before the inception of the theory of the text or ‘will’ as necessary requirements for the Imamate.

As for Zayd bin Ali, he used to say, “Imam among us is not that who sits in his house and bring down his curtains (i.e. close his doors) and discourage Jihad but the Imam among us is that who protects what is in his possession and domain and fight for the sake of Allah a true Jihad, and who defended his followers and safeguard his harem.” (16)

So Imam Baqir’s political theory rests essentially on the pillars of knowledge, and the possession of the weapon of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) and the right of being the heir of the oppressed (Imam Hussain), more than its being based on a clear text, or a declared will, such that the theory of Imamate has not yet crystallized among the Shiites, in the beginning of the second century of Hijrah, up to the time and stage when the issue of the text and the will became central. The general population of Shiites at that time were ignorant of the right of Imam Baqir to the Imamate, and they could not distinguish him from the other pivots of the houses of Hassan, Hussain Ali and Hashim, who were advocating for the leadership of the Shiites, and were competing in that.

Imam Baqir has succeeded in forming a special group of Shiites loyal to him even though it soon became fictionalized, immediately after his death in the year 114 A.H. One of these factions followed his brother Imam Zayd bin Ali, who declared a revolt against the Umayyad Caliph Hisham bin Abd al-Malik in the year 122 A.H, drawing from the theory of “ relations” He said “ The relations of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) has more right to lead and rule. He called for supporting the people of the Prophet’s household (Ahl al-Bayt) in a general sense. He said, “ We call to the Book of Allah and the tradition of his Prophet (peace be upon him) fighting the tyrants, defending the downtrodden and giving those denied; and the distribution of this spoils (Fay) among its rightful owners equally, and returning what was taken wrongly to its owners. So also the closure of hearth, and our help for the members of the Prophets household against any one who pitched his tent against us, and deny us our right.” (17)

The other faction under the leadership of Mughirah bin Sa’id, declared the Imamate of Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Hassan (Dhu al-Nafs al- Zakiyyah), who was preparing to revolt against the Umayyad rule. The third faction however, followed Imam Ja'far bin Muhammad Al–Sadiq. (18)



IMAM SADIQ POLITICAL THEORY

 

Imam Sadiq (A.S) was able to assert and establish his leadership of the Shiites and to prove his capabilities, vast knowledge and good guidance. He was not in dire need of the will, or an indication of it, to occupy that great position, which he occupied in the society and in history. You do not find many traditions in the Shiite heritage on the topic of a text or a will from his father on his Imamate, except a narration describing a very common will reported by Imam Sadiq himself, when he said, “ My father has given me the trust of what is there". When he was about to die, he said, “Call for me witnesses.” I called four witnesses for including one Nafi, the freed slave of Abdullah bin Umar. Then he said, “ Write; This is what Yaqub has enjoined on his sons. O my sons, Allah has chosen for you that (true) religion, then die not except in the faith of Islam (as Muslims). Muhammad bin Ali has enjoined on Ja’far bin Muhammad, instructing him to shroud him in his garment, in which he used to pray Friday Prayer; and that he should turbaned him with his turban; and that he should make his grave a square; and should raise it by four fingers; and that he should untie the knots while placing him in the grave, then he said to the witnesses. “You can go may Allah have mercy on you. Then I said to him, “O father, there is nothing in this that requires witnesses. He than said, “O my son, I fear that you will be defeated, and that it will be said, He did not leave any will for him, so I desire that you possess the evidence. (19)



Some narrations transmitted by Al-Saffar, Kulayni and Mufid from Imam Sadiq said that he was waging a war for the Imamate against his contenders: his uncle Zayd and his cousin and Al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah, on the basis of this will of his father, in addition to the issue of his possession of the weapon of the Messenger of Allah, so also his ring, shield and flag. The problem however, was that Muhammad bin Abdullah was also claiming to be in possession of the weapon of the Messenger of Allah. This is what made Imam Sadiq to disbelieve him vehemently and to state: “By Allah, definitely he is lying .By Allah, he does not have it with him, he has never seen it, with one of his two eyes. He did not see it with his father, except if he saw it with Ali bin Hussain. (20)

Imam Sadiq confirmed in another narration reported by Kulayni in Al-Kafi that: “I have the white and red sword covers sword covers in which the weapon is kept, and it will be opened for blood. The rightful owner of the sword will bring it out for war. The progeny of Hassan do know this as they know that night is night and day is day.

It is only envy and seeking the life of this world that make them to deny it. If they seek their right with truth, that would be better for them. (21)

He also says in another narration, “They have lied by Allah. The Messenger of Allah had two swords, with one of is a sign on the right side. They should tell their two signs and their two names if they are truthful. But I do not despise my cousin, the name of the first is Al-Rusum and the other is Al-Mukhaddham. (22)

The problem that was facing Imam Sadiq was his inability to bring the weapon before the general public due to the fear of the rulers. Due to this he presented another evidence instead of it i.e. the will, where he says to one of his companions Abd-al-A’la who asked him on this problem. It will not be concealed unless he (Imam) has another evidence proof. “He pointed to the above mentioned will as evidence complementing (other evidences) for the Imam. (23)

 It appears from some of the narrations mentioned by Saffar and Mufid: Surely the issue of weapon was at that time the most important deciding factor in the tussle for the Imamate between Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Hassan bin Hassan and Imam Sadiq. Imam Sadiq used to say the similitude of the weapon to us is like the similitude of the Ark (Tabut) to the children of Israel To the children of Israel, if they find the Ark on the door of any family, Prophecy will be given to that family. To anyone the weapon goes among us, will be given the Imamate. My father wore the shield of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), and the earth showed some signs on him. I wear it and it is (still with me). When our leader (Qa'im) will wear it he will fill it i.e. the earth, (with justice) by the will of Allah.” (24) Another narration points to, in addition to the weapon, the role of knowledge in determining the personality of the Imam. Imam Sadiq says on this, directing his statement to the Shiites “If you will only, when they ask you (the progeny of Hassan), and you reply then when they present an evidence on the issue (of the weapon), it is more preferable to say to them: “We are not as has reached to you. But we seek this knowledge from the scholars and the learned.

This weapon is with him who will possess it. If it is with you, we will pay allegiance to you, and if it is with some other people, we will seek for it, till we know (its whereabouts).” (24)

It can be understood from this narration that the children of Hassan were claiming knowledge and the possession of the weapon, as they also claim the possession of the Mushaf (copy of the glorious Quran) of Fatimahh, all these as evidences of their being the legal and deserving persons for the Imamate. With the ambiguity on the contents of the Mushaf of Fatimahh, Imam Sadiq deny its existence with the children of Hassan, and he used to say “ In their mention of the weapon, lies what goes against them, because they are not saying the truth… The truth is in it. Let them put before us the affairs of Ali and his inheritance if they are truthful. Ask them about the maternal and paternal aunts. Let them present the Mushaf of Fatimahh, for there is in it the will of Fatimahh, and with it the weapon of Messenger of Allah, Surely Allah has said “Bring a Book (revealed before this) or some trace of knowledge (in support of your claims) if you are truthful.” (25)

Imam Sadiq while assessing the feature that qualifies him for becoming the Imam said, “We surely have what will make us independent of people, but the people will be in need of us. We possess the Sahifah (Scroll) (its Length) 70 arm lengths, in the handwriting of Ali, based on the dictation of the Messenger of Allah. In it all legal and illegal issues have been explained. (26)

Imam Sadiq also explains the knowledge he has, saying. “It is an inheritance from the Messenger of Allah, and from Ali bin Abi Talib, knowledge not in need of people but people are in need of it.” (27)

Neither the issue of the will, nor that of the weapon or the knowledge form a decisive evidence in the tussle between Imam Sadiq and his uncle and cousin on the leadership of the Shiites, as they were also claiming the possession of knowledge and weapon. He did not believe that that constitute sufficient legal evidence (for his claim) but only as supporting points for his claim to Imamate. This is true because Imam Sadiq was presenting himself as an Imam whose obedience has been imposed by Allah, but as one of the leaders of the household of the Prophet. Due to this he denied and rejected the statement of some of the Shiites in Kufah:

 “He is an Imam whose obedience has been imposed by Allah. This is what the previous narration on the tongue of Sa’id al-Samman and Sulaiman bin Khalid has mentioned: Imam Sadiq was one day sitting under his Thaqifah (Shade), when some people of Kufah sought permission to see him. He allowed them in. Having entered they said to him, “O father of Abdullah, some people came to us, claiming that among you the household of the Prophet is the Imam whose obedience has been imposed as a duty by Allah.” He replied: “No, I don’t know that in our household.” They then said, “O father of Abdullah, they are people of hard work (in worship) seclusion and fear of God, and they are claiming that you are the one. He replied, “They know what they say better (than me). I did not command them to say so”. (28)

As a consequence of the lack of any special (divine) feature on the part of Imam Sadiq, and the lack of any knowledge of a (divine) text for the Imamate of Imam Sadiq, in the views of the Shiites of that time, the movement of Zaydites, under the leadership of his uncle Zayd bin Ali, who initiated a revolution in Kufah in year 122 A.H. The Shiites his death, gathered around his son Yahya bin Zayd, who led another revolt against the Umayyad regime in the year 125 A.H. After three years of the failure of these two uprisings, another widespread Shiite uprising erupted in the year 128 A.H, under the leadership of one to the Talibites, i.e. Abdullah bin Mu’awiyah bin Abdullah bin Ja’far Tayyar. That was the revolt that really shook the masses of the Shiites in various cities of Iraq, which also spread to Al-Mahin and Hamadhan Qumas, Isfahan, Rayy and Faris. The slogan of the uprising was “ to Rida of the family of Muhammad. It was the slogan of the general masses of the Shiites at that time.

Abdullah bin Mu’awiyah made Isfahan the center of his movement and call, and also his area of influence. He sent for the other Hashimites, Alawites and Abbasids, to come to him and contribute in administering the area under his control. A large number of them trooped to him. (29)

After the subsequent failure of this revolt also, the Shiites started claiming the Imamate of Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Hassan bin Hassan (Dhu al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah), who was considering himself as the Awaited Mahdi. The majority of Shiites paid allegiance to him including the Abbasids Al-Saffah and Mansur. (30)

 

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