Sport and gender roles: a viewpoint from liberian adolescent girls in ghana

ADOLESCENT GIRLS IN GHANA

PIM 65
A Capstone Paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of Conflict Transformation at the School for International Training in Brattleboro, Vermont, USA.

Advisor: Paula Green

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Research Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Literature Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Research Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Sample Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Data Collection Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Data Analysis Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Presentation of Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Data Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Practical Applicability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Recommendations for Further Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Appendices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Appendix A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Appendix B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Appendix C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Appendix D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

The following comparative case study uses a standard open-ended interview to question a total of 16 Liberian refugee adolescent girls, eight who participate in team kickball and eight who do not participate in any team sports, regarding their viewpoints on their gender roles both within their communities and within sport. The analysis of this case study indicates that the adolescent girls interviewed, both those who participate in team kickball and those who do not participate in any team sports, seem to view their roles to be restrictive, at least to a small degree, within their communities. The girls, from both sides of the analysis, also tend to favor adolescent girls’ participation in sport and believe that girls’ participation in sport is beneficial for girls’ physical and social development. The analysis furthermore suggests that the girls, who participate in team kickball, seem to have a higher level of role satisfaction and self-confidence than the girls who do not participate in any team sports. This study may be beneficial for non-governmental organizations, government agencies, individuals, and groups who serve populations within developing countries and who maintain a community development or gender issues focus. This study is beneficial for the purposes of developing effective initiatives for certain population groups and/or for the purposes of changing the infrastructure within certain communities or institutions within these communities.

Gender roles and participation in sport have been intertwined for over a century as women and girls have attempted and begun to participate in both individual and team sports. When broaching the topic of females and participation in sport, there tends to be an overwhelming viewpoint that sport is of the ‘masculine nature’ and that the ‘feminine’ should not play. When females do participate in sport, specifically the types of sports that are more male-dominated such as soccer and ice hockey, they are often labeled ‘masculine’, ‘unfeminine’, ‘lesbian’, or ‘defiant’ against the cultural norm.

Nevertheless, females enjoy engaging in sport, and studies have shown how participation in sport can be physically, mentally, and socially healthy for women and girls. Indeed, women and girls across the world continue to participate in sport. Even in developing countries, where female participation in sport tends to be less accepted than in the Western world, many women and girls practice or yearn to practice sport.

Due to the apparently growing popularity of participation in sport by women and girls within developing countries and the proven benefits that result from their athletic participation, it is vital to look at female gender roles within multiple societies of the developing world and how these roles may hinder female participation in sport. It is equally important to look at how women and girls view their gender roles in society because reality lies within the perception of these women and girls and because women and girls can play an important role in creating change within their communities.

The following study focuses on a group of Liberian refugee adolescent girls. Half of the girls participate in team kickball¹ and the other half does not participate in any team sports. The study examines the relation between the girls’ viewpoints on their gender roles in their community and their gender roles in sport. Adolescent girls were chosen instead of women for three primary reasons: perceptions and viewpoints begin to develop early in life, participation in sport during adolescence can play an important factor in participation in sport during adulthood, and during adolescence, a girl begins to distinguish herself from males.

Research Questions

The main question this study will be examining is: What are the perceptions of Liberian refugee adolescent girls, who play organized team sports, on their gender roles both within their community and within sport? The sub-questions on which this study will focus include the following: How have these perceptions changed since they began participating in organized team sports? How do these perceptions compare to the perceptions of Liberian refugee adolescent girls who do not participate in organized team sports? What do Liberian refugee adolescent girls believe the gender norms are within their community both in general and regarding girls who play sport?

Gender roles have been a major issue within Western countries for centuries in which women and girls have tended to be marginalized and disadvantaged in social, political, economic, and educational settings. Women and girls in Western countries have also been marginalized within the sporting arena in which females, who engage in sporting activities, risk facing oppression and discrimination, mostly due to gender norms within society. According to Saavedra (2005), in reference to the modern practice of sport in Western society, “…for many, sport still exemplifies and upholds essential masculine traits, and becomes a code for heterosexual male superiority and domination over the feminine. Female participants in the world of sport put their “femininity” at risk and threaten the social order” (p. 1).

Pedersen and Seidman (2004), pertaining to their study on adolescent girls within the United States, argue that many girls drop out of sports during adolescence because society pressures them to conform to traditional gender roles. These girls in turn begin to identify with other, more socially appropriate roles.

Females who participate in sport in developing countries can also be disadvantaged, perhaps to a higher degree than females in Western countries. Chappell (1999) states, “As participation in sport in the developed world for girls and women is sometimes difficult, it should not be surprising that it may be even more difficult for those in developing countries” (p. 1).

Participation in sport would naturally be difficult for girls and women in the developing world because of the disadvantages and oppression they suffer as a result of their gender. Muller (2000) states that girls in developing countries continue to be procedurally disadvantaged, in comparison to boys, due to their gender. An example Muller gives is how it is more difficult in developing countries for girls than boys to enter into the educational system.

Similarly, The United Nations Millennium Project Gendertaskforce (UNMPG, 2005) discusses the huge number of adolescent girls in poor countries and the importance of fulfilling their needs. The taskforce asserts that it is vital for mission teams to focus specifically on adolescent girls across the world because in most countries, girls face more social, economic, and health disadvantages than do boys.

Mensch, Bruce, and Greene (1998), in addition, describe how adolescent girls in developing countries are subject to “denial of schooling, heavy domestic work burdens, lack of opportunity to earn or retain earnings, forced sexual relations, nonconsensual and underage marriage.” They further assert that “these widespread conditions reflect and reinforce the constraints on girls’ power and autonomy limiting their ability to control the circumstances of their lives” (p. 80).

Pertaining specifically to the domain of sport; however, relatively little research has been conducted regarding participation among women and girls in the developing world. Indeed, Chappell (1999) agrees that little research has been performed regarding women and girls in sport within developing countries, and Brady (2005) claims that it is not very clear how sport can benefit women in developing countries due to a lack of sufficient research.

Nonetheless, the research that has been performed specifically on females and sport in the developing world states that women and girls within developing countries are restricted by their communities due to their gender and that this restriction reflects the society in which they live. Brady (2005), for example, discusses how adolescent girls within developing countries are confined to their societal roles. She asserts that girls within developing countries are restricted in mobility due to fact that cultural norms state that girls should not go out into public. When discussing life conditions of adolescent girls in developing countries, Brady maintains that girls have “narrowed social networks” and “few collective spaces” in which to socialize with peers (p. 39).

Brady provides an example of these conclusions when she describes two cultural situations pertaining to two different countries in Africa where girls face gender discrimination. Brady talks about girls, within a sports organization in Kenya, who are taunted in the community by boys when they go out in public and about girls in Egypt who are also harassed when they use public spaces.

Similarly, Meier, in her working paper for the Swiss Academy for Development (SAD, n.d.), describes societal restriction of females within developing countries by expressing, “…analysis of gender differences and inequalities in most (developing) countries often show a disadvantaged and weaker position of women and girls in social, political, economic, legal, educational and physical matters” (p. 5). Additionally, the United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace (UNIATF-SDP, 2003) maintains that girls have fewer opportunities than boys to socialize outside of the home and family, and Brady & Khan (2002) believe that girls in developing countries are burdened and limited by their parents and by social institutions.

Research on girls and women who participate in sport in developing countries also describes how women and girls within developing countries face several disadvantages such as exclusion and discrimination when participating or trying to participate in sport. Sabo, Miller, Melnick, and Heywood (2004), for instance, state that girls from across the world are unable to benefit from sport and physical activity due to “inequitable access and opportunities” for girls to participate (as cited in Bailey, Wellard, & Dismore, n.d., p.10). Chappell (1999) agrees with this conclusion by stating that dominant sports are organized at the disadvantage of most women.

Similarly, Hartmann-Tews and Pfister (Eds., 2003) explain how it is difficult for women in Tanzania to form officially registered sports clubs, which would give them more recognition and help them receive funding, due to the lack of meeting qualifying conditions such as owning training grounds. The authors continue to explain that there is only one sports association for women in Tanzania, which is netball, and that women’s netball is not represented in proposals dealing with sport and athletics.

Stroot (2001) also tends to believe that discrimination exists when females wish to join the world of sports. She explains that when it comes to whether or not girls and boys end up continuing participating in sport, there is an “uneven social context” for girls in which girls are at a disadvantage (p.137)

One of the reasons women and girls in developing countries seem to be excluded and discriminated against in sport is because it is necessary within their community to maintain the ideal ‘feminine’ role. Saavedra (2003), for example, discusses how girls and women in Senegal have been deterred from participation in specific types of sports due to the fear that sport will “masculinize” them (p. 236). Chappell (1999), in addition, says that in Nigeria, parents did not actively encourage their daughters to participate in sport because of the concern that participation in sport by women creates a masculine body.

Likewise, Majumdar (2003), pertaining to her discussion about the lack of popularity of women’s soccer in India due to the fact that women’s soccer remains taboo in that country, declares that soccer in India is viewed as inappropriate for women due to their physical structure. Pricilla Owusu Sarpong, one of the coaches of a youth sports development program, Right to Play-Ghana, believes that it is necessary to change the stereotype in Ghana that “women simply cannot and should not be physically competitive” (Right to Play, 2005, p. 1).

Another reason for exclusion and oppression of females in the developing world against sport is many girls and women are restricted to household duties. Majumdar (2003) discusses that women in India are not encouraged to play soccer because men desire to keep the women in the household. Meier, in comparison, declares that girls are taught today in developing countries to carry the roles as providers of the home (SAD, n.d.).

Saavedra (2003), in addition, reports that “most African women have overwhelming and intensive household obligations that leave little time to regularly play and develop skills in football (soccer)” (p. 232), and Mensch, et al. (1998), depict how adolescent girls in the developing world are expected to be “docile” and “compliant” in addition to fulfilling several duties such as taking care of children, preparing food, cleaning, and fetching water (p. 17). Mensch et al. claim, “Many adolescent girls are virtually entrapped in the domestic sphere” (p. 16).

Yet sport, according to these and other researchers, is absolutely vital for the social development of girls. Brady (2005) believes that adolescent girls need a space where they can feel psychologically and emotionally safe and that sport, if performed in the proper manner, can help create this space. She continues to explain that sport can help create a safe space because sport provides the opportunity to create a close social network, thus girls in developing countries can create a new identity outside of their traditional roles.

International Platform on Sport and Development (IPSD, n.d.) also believes that sport can be very beneficial for women’s and girls’ social development by explaining how sport can help women and girls access public spaces where they can receive support and have freedom of movement and expression. In addition, the UNIATF-SDP (2003) concludes that participation in sport provides girls the opportunity to access new opportunities and to become more involved in their community.

The President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports (PCPFS, 1997) agrees that physical activity is beneficial for girls’ social development. Nonetheless, the council also discusses the physiological and psychological health benefits for girls who participate in sport. The council states that increased fitness levels can develop strength and flexibility in girls and that sport reduces stress and symptoms of depression. The council also asserts that sport can improve self-esteem, body image, and feelings of competence.

Pedersen and Seidman (2004), on the same side of the coin, state that sport can have a positive effect on adolescent girls’ self-esteem. According to their recent study on minority, low-income adolescent girls, who have made achievements in team sports in the United States, the reporters have found that adolescent girls’ global self-worth benefits from achieving in team sports.

Additionally, Mia Hamm, Olympic Gold Medalist and World Cup Champion in women’s soccer, stresses her opinion in the 2005 issue of Global Issues. Hamm asserts that girls who participate in physical activity and sports have an increased potential to feel positively about themselves.

In summary, the multiple benefits of sport for adolescent girls, as described by Bunker (1998), are “Sport and physical activity contribute to the physical movement capabilities of girls, the health status of their bodies, the values and ethical behaviors they develop, and their personal development of a unique identity” (p. 3).

Girls’ participation in sport may also have the capacity to act as a catalyst to transform gender roles within society. The UNIATF-SDP (2003) concludes that girls’ participation in sport can break gender stereotypes of girls and women, and Meier proclaims that “…just by promoting female sport and by encouraging girls and women to be physically active, gender norms are already challenged” (SAD, n.d., p. 8).

In addition, Brady & Khan (2002) discuss how gender norms can be transformed and how changing these norms can benefit girls. They declare, “Sports participation may help girls develop a sense of ownership of their bodies and may allow them to rewrite the conventional scripts of femininity that encourage them to establish their self-worth mainly in terms of their sexuality” (p. 4).

The following study is a comparative case study, which focuses on two samples of Liberian adolescent girls, ages 13-16². One sample includes eight randomly selected girls who play organized team kickball at their schools located within their community, and the other sample includes eight randomly selected girls, from the same schools, who do not play any type of organized team sports. Each of these Liberian adolescent girls is a refugee residing within the Buduburam Refugee Settlement located outside of Accra, Ghana.

Each girl within the sample selection participated in a Standard Open-Ended interview conducted by the researcher and by two of her colleagues who are Liberian refugee men. Each interview consisted of six questions for the girls who play team kickball and four questions for the girls who do not participate in any team sports (see Appendix A). Each girl, in both of the sample groups, was asked the same questions in the same order, except two questions were omitted for the group of girls who do not participate in any team sports. Each question allowed for the girls to expand fully on their perceptions and viewpoints.

The data received from the interviews are reported as descriptive portraits of the girls’ responses (See Appendix B) and are analyzed according to several particular themes that surfaced from the responses of the girls. Conclusions are then drawn based upon the themes that were analyzed. These conclusions compare and contrast the viewpoints of the girls who participate in team kickball and the viewpoints of the girls who do not participate in any team sports.

Most of the girls, both those who participate in team kickball and those who do not participate in any team sports, also mentioned performing many duties within their community including community-cleanup, household chores, taking care of children, advising others, helping others in need, and teaching or educating others. Almost every girl, if not all of them, from both sides of the analysis, indicated that she is at least somewhat satisfied with her character traits in addition to her responsibilities within the community.

Some of the girls, who play team kickball, made references to how participation in kickball gives girls a better image within their community. On the other hand, some of the girls, who do not play any team sports, spoke about their reputation in regard to their character traits and responsibilities in which they referred to not being looked upon negatively within their community. Several of the girls, mostly those who play team kickball, stated that they maintain their characteristics and responsibilities because they will have help and assistance from others when they are in need.

Both groups of girls, the group who plays team kickball and the group who does not play any team sports, mentioned positive viewpoints regarding girls’ physical bodies and the nature of sport. Many of them indicated that participation in sport, kickball in particular, is vital to maintain a healthy body. While some of the girls mentioned that participation in sport decreases a girl’s chances of becoming ill, others referred to how sport strengthens the body. One girl, who plays team kickball, made references to having doubts about her body handling physical exercise, yet indicated that she became confident that her body could not only handle but actually benefit from playing kickball. One girl, who does not play any team sports, on the other hand, had a negative viewpoint on participation in sport and the physical body in regard to female participation in a particular sport (soccer). Nevertheless, she also stated that it is good for girls to play sport in general.

Half of the girls, who participate in team kickball, and one girl, who does not participate in any team sports, indicated that participation in sport, kickball in particular, is beneficial for girls’ social, moral, and/or educational development. The girl, who does not play any team sports, mentioned that sport helps girls to be friendly with their teammates, thus indicating that sport helps to build relationships.

Most of the girls, both those who play team kickball and those who do not play any team sports, indicated that they believe that community members maintain a positive viewpoint of girls’ participation in sport. A few of the girls, on both sides of the analysis, nonetheless, indicated that although some community members hold positive viewpoints on the matter, other community members do not.

Only two of the girls interviewed, both of whom play team kickball, did not mention any positive viewpoints of community members regarding girls’ participation in sport. One girl did not say anything about the opinions of community members, but the other girl mentioned that she believes that community members disagree with girls playing sport because girls become dirty from playing and cannot afford to take a bath after training. She then stated that some community members feel sorry for the girls who cannot bathe. Her response, nonetheless, does not particularly indicate that community members disagree with girls playing sport in general, rather community members disagree that girls have to sleep dirty. This may indicate that either community members feel that girls should not be dirty within their community or that they simply feel for anyone who has to remain dirty and cannot take a bath.

Regarding the theme, ‘Changes after Beginning Sport’, many of the girls, who play team kickball, did not indicate any changes in perceptions or viewpoints since they began participating in a team sport. Nonetheless, some of them did mention changes in their lifestyle since they began playing. Three of the girls mentioned negative changes in their lifestyle such as participation in kickball takes away their time to focus on their responsibilities with friends or family. However, two of the girls mentioned positive changes in their lifestyle such as participation in kickball helps them to refrain from dabbling in destructive activities.

All of the girls, who participate in team kickball, expressed satisfaction with their roles in their community. Not one of them had any objections to their roles, and they all stated that they feel good about what they do. Most of the girls portrayed confidence and pride regarding their roles. On the other hand, regarding the group who does not participate in any team sports, not all of the girls expressed full satisfaction with their roles in the community. Although not one of them had any objections to their roles, some of the girls did not speak too highly about their roles. Some even made a few negative comments about their roles within their community such as feeling like a child or not wanting to do much within the community.

Almost all of the girls, both those who participate in team kickball and those who do not play any team sports, commented that sport is positive for girls. As described previously in this analysis, many of the girls, on both sides of the analysis, commented on how sport is physically beneficial for girls, and many of the girls, who participate in team kickball, made statements regarding the social, moral and/or educational benefits of girls participating in sport. Several of the girls, who participate in team kickball, also discussed how participation in kickball keeps girls from getting into trouble (also discussed previously in this analysis), and one or two girls, who do not participate in any team sports, made similar references. In addition, some of the girls, from both sides of the analysis, stated or indicated that either they or their community members believe that sport plays an important role for the future of girls.

Every girl, who plays kickball, tends to agree with girls’ participation in kickball, and one girl, who does not play any team sports, seems to take more of a neutral standpoint on girls participating in sport. Only two girls, who do not play any team sports, made negative remarks regarding girls and their playing kickball (see Appendix D).

Conclusions
Generally speaking, the Liberian refugee adolescent girls interviewed, both those who participate in team kickball and those who do not participate in any team sports, seem to feel that their roles are at least somewhat restricted within their community. When speaking about fulfilling multiple community and household duties and about upholding specific character traits, not only did several of the girls, from both sides of the analysis, mention fulfilling multiple community expectations, but these girls also stated several ‘shoulds’ in reference to themselves and to girls in general. These girls also mentioned maintaining a praiseworthy status within the community. Statements like these indicate that these girls may feel pressured by their communities or may feel restricted by the perceptions of the community. The latter statement specifically, denotes that girls may not feel that they are respected as worthy individuals.

The girls, who participate in team kickball, for example, seemed to correlate self-worth with participation in sport, suggesting that they may participate in kickball to maintain the proper reputation. The girls, who do not participate in any team sports, similarly, seemed to maintain their gender roles for the sake of upholding good character representation within their community.

In addition, some of the girls, who play team kickball, may view their roles as restrictive because even though they often have the freedom to go out and play, some of them indicated that playing kickball limits them from their family and friendship duties. One girl spoke about not having enough time to finish chores, and another girl expressed that she does not see her friends as much due to kickball.

Nevertheless, whether they participate in team kickball or do not participate in any team sports, these adolescent girls may perform their responsibilities and carry out their roles for the sake of a give and take relationship in order to receive benefits in return from their community, perhaps due to survival reasons. Many of the girls, both team kickball players and non-participants in any team sports, mentioned providing service to the community or maintaining certain characteristics so they can receive help when they need it. Thus these girls may be looking out for their livelihood rather than succumbing to perceived pressures from the community.

In spite of the possibility of feeling at least some degree of restriction within their community, the Liberian adolescent girls interviewed, both those who participate in team kickball and those who do not participate in any team sports, seem to favor adolescent girls’ participation in sport. Not only did most the girls, from both sides of the analysis, maintain positive viewpoints about girls’ participation in sport, but most of them also indicated that they enjoy the fact that adolescent girls play sport.

In fact, many of these girls, both those who participate in team kickball and those who do not participate in any team sports, seem to view sport as beneficial, both physically and socially, for girls their age. Several of these girls, as described in the analysis, reported physical, social, moral, educational, and/or future advantages for girls who play sport.

One such benefit that several of the girls, more specifically those who participate in team kickball, refer to is playing kickball either gives them something to do or keeps them off of the streets. Thus, this study also points to the possible conclusion that these adolescent girls believe that participation in sport prevents girls from indulging in unproductive activities.

The girls, from both sides of the analysis, also seem to find it acceptable for girls to participate in sport. Many, if not all of the girls interviewed, both those who play team kickball and those who do not participate in any team sports, indicated that they see their community members as supportive of girls’ participation in sport. If girls believe that community members view their participation in sport in a positive light, then the girls themselves are probably more likely to view sport in an optimistic fashion.

Another conclusion that can be made, regarding the Liberian refugee adolescent girls who were interviewed, is that those who participate in team kickball tend to be more satisfied with their roles within the community than the girls who do not play any team sports. Not only did the girls, who participate in team kickball, seem to be more self-confident, open, and sometimes more affirmative than those who do not play any team sports, but some of the girls, who do not participate in any team sports, mentioned viewpoints such as wanting to be alone in the community and feeling badly about being within the community. Thus due to the upbeat and more assured nature of many of the girls who participate in team kickball as compared to those who do not participate in any team sports, and due to some of the negative comments from the girls who do not participate in any team sports, about being in the community, it can be further concluded that perhaps the girls, who play team kickball, have a higher level of self-confidence than those who do not participate in team sport.

Limitations

One limitation that seemed to occur while conducting the interview is that not all of the girls seemed to fully comprehend the questions asked. This is most likely due to the fact that the students within the Liberian refugee camp are in grade levels determined by their financial ability to begin and continue school, not necessarily according to their age. Thus some of the girls, who were interviewed, were at a lower grade level than appropriate to their age. In addition, because the researcher speaks a different type of English than the Liberians, perhaps some of the girls did not understand her English.

Another limitation that may have been possible is that some of the girls may not have been comfortable talking about their community and gender roles to the interviewers due to the sex of the Liberian interviewers or due to the nationality of the researcher. Furthermore, some of the girls may not have been very responsive during the interviews due to their gender roles within the community. Perhaps it is not socially acceptable for girls to speak freely or possess an open mind.

Practical Applicability

This study may be useful for any non-governmental organization, government agency, group, and individual, particularly those groups and individuals who focus on community development or gender issues, involved in serving populations within developing countries. More specifically, this study may be useful to groups and individuals who target adolescent girls and/or who maintain the objective of using sport as a tool for development. In addition, this study may be of use for non-governmental organizations and government agencies who partner with other organizations with similar missions and objectives mentioned above. Furthermore, scholars, who wish to perform additional research and to make further conclusions regarding the topic, may find this study beneficial.

This study can help the above-mentioned groups and individuals to develop initiatives for certain population groups or to change the infrastructure within certain communities or institutions within these communities. This study can also guide those who wish to directly encourage, counsel, or empower adolescent girls or other community members within developing countries. This study can also help adolescent girls, in developing countries, gain a better understanding about themselves and their community.

Recommendations for Further Research

This study produced significant findings regarding the thoughts of Liberian refugee adolescent girls, those who participate in team kickball and those who do not participate in any team sports, on their gender roles in society and in sport. The study focused specifically on two small groups of adolescent girls who are of Liberian nationality and who are also refugees living in Ghana. Liberian refugees living in Ghana is a true representation of a group within developing countries. Nonetheless, they do not represent the entire population of the developing world. Therefore, it is also important to find conclusions regarding the viewpoints of adolescent girls on their gender roles in society and in sport, from multiple populations within developing countries. This would provide a broader applicability towards both refugee and non-refugee adolescent girls in a variety of developing communities.

This study additionally focused on a group of adolescent girls who play team kickball and a group of adolescent girls who do not play any team sports. Kickball is a valuable and beneficial team sport; nonetheless, it is of a different nature than other team sports such as basketball, football (soccer), etc. and is also of a different nature than individual sports such as dance or running. Thus it is also essential to find conclusions regarding the viewpoints of adolescent girls, on their gender roles in society and in sport, pertaining to other types of team and individual sports in order to provide applicability towards adolescent girls who play or wish to play multiple types of sports.

Some specific areas that this study did not examine is whether or not girls’ participation in sport acts as a catalyst to change gender norms within society or whether adolescent girls within developing countries can gain a healthier viewpoint of themselves as a result of playing sport. Because significant findings, regarding these concepts, would help one to gain a better understanding of society and to assist individuals and groups to further define their initiatives and to build beneficial infrastructures, it is important to further inquire adolescent girls and other community members, within several developing communities, regarding viewpoints on gender roles and girls’ participation in sport. It would also be worthwhile to make further observations within various communities and sporting areas within developing countries. Valuable observations would include the behaviors of adolescent girls, both those who participate in sport and those who do not participate in sport, families, spectators, and other community members.

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