Source: best, 2005a
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Deep Water Ecosystem The deep sea environments of The Bahamas include the waters at depths greater than 3000 feet, the ocean floors, and the adjacent deep Atlantic Ocean. The environment is dark, cold and has limited food supplies with the majority of the food supplies falling from the surface. This environment is home to a variety of fish and marine life like “black gulpers,” “hagfish,” “rattail grenadiers,” and “glass sponges.” Some toothed whale species capable of foraging at extreme depths such as beaked whales and sperm whales occur in the deep water ecosystem. Beaked whales are remaining in localised foraging areas and abundance of these subpopulations is low (Claridge and Durban 2009a, b). The deep water fishing industry is not well developed in The Bahamas as it is more costly and requires intensive specialized equipment and technology. However, interest is increasing as fishermen attempt to diversify their catch (BREEF, 1998).
Seagrass beds cover thousands of acres of the Bahama Banks and support all aspects of commercial and recreational fisheries. It is critical for the future marine resources in The Bahamas because 0.4 hectares of seagrass may support as many as 40,000 fish, and 50 million small inverterbrates (Hill, 2002). The seagrass beds off shore include Turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum), Shoal grass (Halodule wrightii) and Manatee grass (Syringodium fi liforme). Turtle grass is probably the most significant plant species in The Bahamas, and certainly the most prolific (Campbell, 1978). Many animals are dependent on seagrass meadows, like sea stars, parrot fish, surgeonfish, sea urchins, queen conchs, stone, crabs, sea turtles and manatees that were once common in The Bahamas. There are 150 shallow water species and 200 deep-water species of starfish (BEST, 2004b). The shells of Queen conch have been used in The Bahamas as instruments in traditional festivals, as well as for curios and jewellery. Seagrass meadows provide a critical buffer between islands and coral reefs. They are important to the shallow marine ecosystem of The Bahamas as they trap sediment that might damage reefs and provide food for a multitude of marine creatures (BEST, 2002). Seagrass beds are important indicator species of the overall health of coastal ecosystems as they have high biodiversity and are sensitive to changes in water quality (Hill, 2002).
Coral reefs actually make up a small area of the country compared to mangrove wetlands and sea grass meadows, but have diverse plant and animal communities. Reefs cover 1,832 km2 (2.2%) of the Great Bahama Bank and 324 km2 of the Little Bahama Bank (Linton, et.al, 2002). A vast Montastrae reef lies to the north of Conception Island and is the largest continuous example of such habitat in The Caribbean (National Parks). The reefs are more abundant on the windward north and eastern sides of the islands and cays than on the leeward sides (BEST, 2005a). Some of the important reef regions are listed in Table 1.6. Coral reefs provide habitats for a variety of commercial fisheries such as spiny lobsters (Panuluris argus), groupers (Epinephelus spp.), grunts (Haemulon spp.), snappers (Lutjanus spp.), and jacks (Seriola spp.). The Bahamian spiny lobster fishery is the fourth largest in the world and is the most lucrative of all commercial Bahamian fishing activity and earns in excess of $90 million annually for exports (BNT, 2010a). During 1997-2000 the Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment (AGRRA) and the University of Miami conducted surveys of the coral reefs. Overall, The Bahamas reefs are considered in good condition, having high coral colony frequency and coral cover with low to moderate coral mortality. Eighteen (18) species of major reef building corals were identified, with the most abundant species at 10m being boulder star coral (Montastrea annularis) and at (3m or less) being the elkhorn coral (Acropora palmate). Table 1.6: Important reef regions of The Bahamas
The Bahamas is located in a hurricane belt and coral reefs may be destroyed or altered by severe hurricane conditions. After hurricanes Frances and Jeanne, the corals in the Exuma Cays showed signs of erosion by sand scouring and in some sites small corals were detached and the large sea corals (gorgonian corals) were possibly overturned by wave surges (Brumbaugh, 2004). Sand scouring was also responsible for the removal of masses of algae. Sediment was also observed on the reefs and decomposing organic material such as seagrass and algae had accumulated on the sea floor.
Wetlands comprise 40% of the land area in The Bahamas and range from narrow fringes of trees along the coast, to extensive shallow wetlands, and to large tidal creek systems. There are both inland and coastal wetlands. The Bahamas was estimated to have 4,286 km² of mangrove forest and other wetland habitats (BEST, 2004a). There are three species of mangroves found in The Bahamas: red (Rhizophora mangle), black (Avicennia germinans), white (Laguncularia racemosa), and buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus). Wetlands are fish nurseries and provide habitats for many plants, migratory and native birds ( Table 1.7). M Figure 1.9: Flamingos ost national parks and protected areas within the Bahama Islands contain mangroves. One such park is the Inagua National Park which was added to the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance in 1997. The Park is 32,600 ha (80,556 acres) and contains marshes, swamps, open waters and pools. Buttonwood and black mangroves are dominant i  n the park. This park is the main breeding ground for Flamingos (Phoenicopterus rubber) and is the home of the endangered Bahama Parrot (Amazona leucocephala bahamensi). See Table: 3.2: Protected Areas of The Bahamas. The Ecological Gap Assessment found that “Inagua is the only island that exceeds both CBD and target specific goals for beach, rocky shore, seabirds and mangroves. Inagua also meets CBD goals for beach, seagrass, turtles, reef sand, inland water, blue holes, coppice, shrublands and important bird areas” (Thurlow, 2007).
Table 1.7: Important species found in wetlands/mangroves
The Blue Holes in The Bahamas were formed during the many sea level lows that occurred during the Ice Ages or the Pleistocene. At those times sea level was as much as 400 feet lower that its current level. The Dean’s Blue Hole in Long Island, is the deepest known blue hole (more than 600 feet) in The Bahamas and is adjacent to the coastline and in the sea. It is estimated that on Andros Island there are 178 inland blue holes and at least 50 ocean blue holes (Sealy, 1994). Blue holes can be found on all the major islands of The Bahamas. Cave formations, such as stalagmites and stalactites, as well as Lucayan artifacts can be found within the blue holes. 
Figure 1.10: Ocean Blue Hole The Bahamas Caves Research Foundation (BCRF) has collaborated with the Antiquities Monuments and Museums Corporation (AMMC) on various blue holes related projects, since 1990. Over the last 5 years, that collaboration has turned into a partnership that has involved the AMMC and BCRF team members in almost every aspect of blue holes exploration, research and conservation in The Bahamas. The Sawmill Sink Project in Abaco was a multi disciplinary research project funded by AMMC. In 2004, BCRF Director, Brian Kakuk discovered a single Tortoise shell and Crocodile skull on the peat covered talus mound of the sink hole. Research has been continuous since 2004 and in 2007 team discoveries were published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (BCRF, 2007). Vertebrate and plant fossils were found in one of the blue holes providing evidence that reptiles, birds, mammals, flora and fauna existed before and during the prehistoric arrival of people on Abaco. Skeletons of two extinct species (tortoise Chelonoidis undescribed sp. and Caracara Caracara creightoni) and two existing species no longer in The Bahamas (Cuban crocodile,Crocodylus rhombifer; and Cooper’s or Gundlach’s Hawk, Accipitercooperii or Accipiter gundlachii) were also discovered Other findings included owl roost and bat roost that featured remains of lizards (one species), snakes (three species), birds (25 species), and bats (four species). A human tibia and sacrum were also found. The specimens found in the Sawmill Sink blue hole are well preserved and will enable scientists to reconstruct ancient environments in The Bahamian Archipelago and assist them in estimating long term changes in such phenomena as fire regimes, plant communities, vertebrate turnover rates, body sizes of reptiles, terrestrial food webs including predator–prey relationships, and human impact on biotic communities (BCRF, 2007).
The Bahamas is endowed with white, sandy beaches that attract many visitors annually. This environment is very important to the Tourism Industry which is the main industry for The Bahamas. The beaches experience natural alterations due to seasonal changes, storms, hurricanes, surges, changes in tides and sea level rise and erosion. Routine monitoring of the major beaches on New Providence Island has been ongoing since 1995; namely, Long Wharf, Arawak Cay, Goodman’s Bay, Orange Hill, Jaws Beach, Cabbage Beach, Sandy Port Beach, South Beach, Yamacraw Beach, and Montague Beach. The parameters of the beach monitoring include testing the water quality, beach vegetation and beach erosion.
Even though, a few trends have been identified for various species and ecosystems in The Bahamas, there is no long term, systematic way of collecting information, nor is there a requirement for how results from research is presented in the country. From observation, fishermen have to go further and further out to sea to catch species (conch, lobster, snapper, etc) that use to be in the nearshore indicating a decline in the species. According to Gittens and Braynen (2002) the deep water populations are reaching a point of overfishing. Gascoigne’s (2002) research on the queen conch showed that the queen conch is heavily overfished in the Exuma Cays. According to the WRI’s “Reefs at Risk” the populations of grouper and conch show clear evidence of overfishing. The most recent mortality rates available on spiny lobster indicate that the stock was close to being fully exploited (Gittens and Braynen, 2002). The Ecological Gap Assessment (2007) found that reefs with high mangrove connectivity have been shown to have a greater biomass of several fish species. Research in the Exuma Land and Sea Park marine fishery reserve showed that the park is functioning to help protect the abundance, size, and reproductive output of marine species. “There were clearly more and larger Nassau grouper inside the park than outside it and those individuals within the park are likely producing on the average 4.6-7.1 times as many eggs per unit area, compared to smaller individuals outside of the park (Sluka et al.).” Through AGRRA it was found that coral reefs have declined in waters near the more developed and populated islands, such as New Providence and San Salvador, but are generally in good condition. In less developed islands such as the Abaco’s, Andros, Bimini, Eleuthera, Cat Island, Long Island and the Exumas, the relatively isolated reefs have a high percent cover of hard corals, as well as high densities of fish and are considered very healthy. “Sites in North and Central Andros seem to be the healthiest based on lower mortality, lower abundance of microalgae and higher abundance and diversity of fish” (Linton, et.al, 2002). On San Salvador, monitoring by the Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program (CARICOMP) since 1994 showed changes in coral cover at a 10m depth of 9.6% to 4% in 2001, with macroalgae being predominant. Resulting in the transition of that reef community from one in which corals and algae were co-dominant to a community dominated by macroalgae. Additionally, The Lindsay’s Reef, Rocky Point Reef and Rice Bay Reef were studied from 1992 to 2007 in San Salvador. “Rice Bay Reef had a lower coral cover and seemingly less healthy assemblage of biota than Rocky Point and Lindsay’s Reef and exhibits a greater degree of stasis than they do (McGrath, et al, 2007).” Overall, the study showed that the coral reef systems showed remarkable resilience and stability despite three (3) major hurricanes, periods of prolonged high sea-surface temperature, episodes of coral bleaching and outbreaks of diseases on both scleractinian and gorgonian corals. In The Bahamas seagrass beds and their geographical distribution is the least documented and must be seen as an important aspect of fisheries habitat and baseline data must be collected and accessible (BEST, 2005a). In 1984, Sprunt estimated the total number of nesting seabirds to be 75,000 pairs (14 species). In 1995, Lee, et. al estimated a minimum of 3,000 – 4,000 pairs of seabirds nest in the Exuma Land and Sea Park. In the 1950s the West Indian Flamingo was frequently hunted and near extinction. Banding studies at the Inagua National Park (INP) show that the park is providing nesting and feeding habitat for the last stronghold of the West Indian Flamingo and that the Inagua birds have served to repopulate Cuba, Mayaguana, Turks and Caicos Islands and Cayman Islands. Today, there are approximately 50,000 Flamingo’s in the Inagua National Park (BNT, 2009a). The prehistoric Lucayan people of The Bahamas (A.D. ~ 600-1500) considered blue holes to be sacred (BEST, 2002). Nowadays, depending on which island you are on, people consider blue holes as either recreational areas of environmental importance or as dumping grounds. The continuous beach monitoring for bacti (fecal bacteria), salinity, ph, and conductivity indicate that The Bahamas is well within range of EPA’s recommended levels for Fecal Coliform in recreational waters. The beach vegetation and beach erosion is only monitored during the summer months due to the availability of summer students. Vegetation counts inclusive of invasive alien species (IAS) (e.g. Casuarina equisetifolia and Scaevola taccada) are collected annually. Even though there is a management plan in place it is not used and no action is taken to control or alleviate the invasive species. The amount of sand on the beach is measured for erosion using a measuring tape from the high water mark inland. While this data on beach vegetation and beach erosion is gathered, it is not compared or analyzed. The quality of the data is not reliable due to the diverse persons collecting it.
Natural and anthropogenic hazards that threaten the marine and coastal environment are presented below.
The coastal and marine environment is blessed with many sandy beaches, clear warm waters and colorful coral reefs which support the tourism and fishery sectors in The Bahamas. Ironically, development in the tourism sector, as well as urban and infrastructure expansion has resulted in many physically damaging changes to the coast and the marine environment. Habitats are fragmented as result of the development resulting in ecosystems having less resilience to hurricanes and storm surges; which is expected to be amplified by climate change. Devastation of coral reefs and mangroves lessens shoreline protection and makes The Bahamas more vulnerable to storm damage, erosion and flooding. Plus, there would be diminished income earning potential and decreased availability of resources due to the reduction in shelter, food and nursery areas for many species of fish, crustaceans, honey bees and birds, notwithstanding, the loss of important fishery areas providing food to Bahamians and visitors. More importantly, educational and scientific opportunities would be lost.
The Bahamian islands are home to more species of rock iguana than any other West Indian island nation and are among the most endangered species of the world’s lizards. Three species and a total of 7 sub-species of rock iguana live in the dry scrub forest and beaches of The Bahamas. They mainly inhabit small cays but one species is found on Andros. 
Figure 1.11: Iguana The iguanas eat the fruit of many plants and distribute the seeds of plants in their feces. Scientists have shown that seeds passing through the gut of iguanas grow faster and stronger than with other seed dispersers (Hayes, 2003). See Table 1.8 for a list of the iguana species, status and distribution. The Bahama hutias occur naturally only on East Plana Cay located between Acklins and Mayaguana. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oral Reefs