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Trends

In 2008, the Ministry of Agriculture and Marine Resources embarked on a “Backyard Farming Programme” for householders in The Bahamas, aimed at lowering food imports and household food bills during the present economically hard times. Additionally, through subsidies the Department of Agriculture is encouraging farmers to expand sweet potatoes, bananas, onion, Irish potatoes, and pigeon peas acreage. Recently, the cultivation of several crops, notably ornamental plants and citrus fruits, has expanded, while the farming of poultry and livestock has declined. Livestock production is one of the areas emphasized in the agricultural policy and the aim is to make each island self-sufficient in poultry and pork. Poultry, eggs, and livestock production in The Bahamas has increased by 4%, 1%, and approximately 4% in 2008 from 2007, respectively (Dupuch, 2010).


      1. Threats

The primary threats to the Agricultural ecosystems are:-

  • Land conversion – lack of protection for agricultural land

  • Hurricanes

  • Fires – slash and burn could result in uncontrollable fires

  • Diseases – mealy bug, canker rust, insects, fungus, foot and mouth disease etc.

  • Lack of water supply




      1. Implication for Human Beings

According to the 1998 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Country statistics, The Bahamas imports approximately 98.1% of its net cereal imports and food supplies. The Government has instituted a policy to utilize agriculture lands to aid in the growth of the economy through increased exports, by providing jobs and by reducing dependence on the tourism sector, in hope of providing food sustainability. In many instances, it costs more to grow locally, than to import products which results in an actual decrease in wealth.



    1. Figure 1.3: Pine Forest
      Forest Ecosystems

      1. Status

Pine forests exist on the northern islands of The Bahamas. Protected forests are the Rand Nature and Lucayan National Park, Grand Bahama and the Abaco National Park in southern Abaco (see Table 3.2: Protected Areas). The Coppice Islands are Cat Island, Eleuthera, Exuma, Long Island, Rum Cay and San Salvador. Acklins, Crooked Island, Inagua, Mayaguana and Ragged Island are more drought resistant woodland islands that receive the least amount of rain.

Pine forest

Today the pine forests comprise approximately 618,500 hectares (1,528,347 acres) (BEST, 2005a). “On Andros and Abaco the forests are uniformly monotonous with all of the trees virtually the same age (TNC, 2004).” Thatch Pine (Thrinax morrisii) and Silver Thatch Palm (coccothrinax argentata) are found in the pine forests. The Caribbean Pine (Pinus caribea vs bahamensis) is dominant in the pine forest which is also a habitat for the plant species listed in Table 1.2.


Figure 1.4: Kirtland Warbler

Many bird species inhabit the pine forest (Table 3.2 for Wild Bird Reserves). Among them are over thirty different species of warbler, of which two are endemic; the Bahamian yellowthroat (Geothlypis rostrata) and the pine warbler (Dendroica pinus). The remaining warblers, which include the endangered Kirtland’s warbler (Dendroica kirtlandii) are winter migrants.


Figure 1.5: Bahama Parrot

Research on Grand Bahama Island revealed that another species of birds, the Brown-headed Nuthatch (Sp. insularis) is very much endangered (Hayes, et al, 2004). According to Hayes, et al, these birds inhabit the Caribbean Pine, one of the most threatened habitats in the West Indies. It was reported densities of 8.48 birds/km² in 1969 (Emlen, 1977) and 13 birds/ km² in 1979 (Emlen, 1981). However, Smith and Smith (1994) conducted extensive surveys in 1993, encountering two individuals. They concluded that the nuthatch had suffered more than a 90% decline since 1969. In addition the pine forest is also habitat to a rare atala hairstreak butterfly (Eumarus atala), and on Abaco, the endangered Bahama Parrot (Amazon leucocephala bahanensis) (BNT, 1995). Other wildlife found in pine forest includes raccoon, quail, wood dove, white-crowned pigeon, and several hummingbirds and duck species (BEST, 2002). On the Island of Inagua, the endangered Bahama Parrot lives in the coppice areas.


Table 1.2: Pine forest plant species

Sabal palmetto

Cocothrinax argenta

Snow berry

Chiococca alba

Auricled green brier

Smilax auriculata

Poisonwood

Metopium toxiferum

Purple-flowered orchid

Bletia purpurea

Wolly corchorus

Corchorus hirsutus

Southern bracken fern

Pteridium aquilinum

Pigeon plum

Cocoloba diversifolia

Bushy beard grass

Andropogon glomeratus

Grass fern

Vittaria lineata

Scale leafed love vine

Cassytha filiformis

Serpent Fern

Polypodium aureum

Five finger or chicken foot

Tabebuia bahamense







Source: BEST 2005a








Coppice forest

The coppice forests are mainly confined to the central and southern islands and characterized by many valuable hardwood trees. There are two different types of coppice in The Bahamas: blackland coppice and whiteland coppice. The blackland coppice is found inland. These trees provide shade and cooler temperatures for a variety of shrubs and species of stoppers. It is also the habitat for the Bahamian boa constrictor (Epicrates spp.), lizards and birds. See Table 1.3 for species found in the blackland coppice.


The shade and humidity of the blackland coppice provides the ideal habitat for orchids and bromeliads, which cling to the bark of trees with tenacious roots. Nine species of orchids are of the genus Epidendrum, including the endemic E. inaguensis, with linear leaves and purple-yellow f
Figure 1.6: Orchid
lowers and are found on Inagua and Little Inagua. The three native species of vanilla are climbing orchids with fleshy leaves, found in the northern and central Bahamas. The bromeliads are represented by the pineapple and numerous species of Tillandsia, which include Spanish moss and the so-called wild pines. The wild pines are still common in most forest areas. Most of them resemble pineapples with a rosette of long, green leaves which send out an elaborate stalked inflorescence once a year.
The whiteland coppice occurs in areas in close proximity to the sea and under stress caused by factors such as drought, storms and grazing animals. The whiteland coppice is habitat for the land crabs which are eaten by Bahamians: Giant white crab (Cardisoma gunahumi) and the black crab (Gecarcinas lateralis). See Table 1.4 for species found in the whiteland coppice.
Table 1.3: Species found in blackland coppice forests

Trees

Mahogany

Swietenia mahagoni

Cedar

Cedrela odorata

Mastic

Mastichodendron foetidissimum

Horseflesh

Lysiloma sabicu

Shrubs and stoppers (Eugenia spp.)

Wild coffee

Psychotria spp.

Satin leaf or saffron

Chrysophyllum oliviforme

Bahamas strongbark

Bourreria ovata

Pigeon plum

Cocoloba diversifolia

Poisonwood

metopium toxiferum

Smooth-billed anis

Crotophaga ani

White-crowned pigeon

Columba leucocephala

Key West quail dove

Geotrygon chrysia

Source: BNT, 1995


Table 1.4: Plants and trees found in whiteland coppice

Plants

Rugged brasiletto

Caesalpinia vesicaria

Haulback

Mimosa bahamensis

Catcus




Tall shade trees

Mahagony

Swietenia mahagoni

Balsam or autography tree

Clusia rosea

Sea grape

Coccoloba uvifera

Manchineel

Hippomane mancinella

Source: BNT, 1995




      1. Trends

In the past, the forestry sector relied primarily on the exploitation of natural forest resources for wood products, such as pulpwood to produces paper and sawlogs for constructional timber. Since that period, the focus of forestry sector has shifted from one of forest exploitation to that of the multi-purpose functions of the Bahamian forest. This transition began in the late 1980’s and into the 1990’s. It is believed that hurricanes have heavily impacted the pine forest, resulting in little to no pine regeneration within the forest. The pine forest in Abaco appears to have more patches of regeneration than the forest on Andros (TNC, 2004).
The minimum 10% habitat protection goal for pine forest is met in Abaco and Andros. Coppice is protected at 7% on average and 31% of Inagua’s coppice forest is protected. The dry broadleaf evergreen forest coppice is under represented even though it is the most diverse terrestrial habitat found in The Bahamas (Thurlow, 2007).
A study by Stahala (1994), showed that the Abaco National Park on Abaco Island only protects the high density nesting areas for the Bahama Parrot and that the park is primarily used by the parrots during the breeding months, and the Caribbean Pine (hardwood) areas along the perimeter of the island are used during the non-breeding season as a primary foraging source.
The Bahama Parrot was formerly found throughout 7 islands in The Bahamas. The More recently populations are only found in Abaco and Great Inagua with estimates at approximately 4,000 to 10,000 individuals (Russello et al, 2010).


      1. Threats

The primary threats to the forest ecosystems of The Bahamas are:

  • Unsubscribed/unscheduled burning – fires started carelessly or deliberately by humans

  • Development – indiscriminate tree clearing

  • Over exploitation has caused near-extinction of some tree species

  • Competition from exotic or introduced species like the Casuarina and the Brazillian Pepper reduces the abundance of native vegetation and alters important native habitats

  • Predators to the Bahama Parrot – feral cats and raccoons

  • Hunting




      1. Implication for Human Beings

Forest ecosystems of The Bahamas provide significant ecological benefits such as the protection of soil and freshwater resources and provide a haven for wildlife inclusive of rare and endangered species. Therefore, loss of the forest ecosystem would result in diminished recreational opportunities (camping, hunting and bird watching); loss of traditional bush medicine and a reduction in commercial products (pulpwood, turpentine and resins). Additionally, loss of trees will lead to the loss of food supply, shelter and nesting sites for birds and many small animals, and soil erosion.


    1. Inland Waters Ecosystems

      1. Status

There are no rivers or major freshwater lakes in the country but several islands contain large brackish lakes, and many tidal creeks. Grand Bahama and Andros have large tidal creeks which are generally navigable by small boats. Inland wetlands receive water from precipitation, surface runoff, tidal flows and groundwater. The Harold and Wilson Pond and Big Pond are protected inland wetlands in New Providence. Both airfield areas of New Providence occupy land within or next to swamps, as at Windsor Field by Lake Killarney and Oakes Field by Big Pond (former airfield). There are ridgeland and rockland lakes in The Bahamas.
Rainfall is the only natural source of freshwater in The Bahamas. Throughout the islands, the average annual rainfall varies from about 34 in (865 mm) to about 58 in (1470 mm). There is a distinct northwest to southeast gradient to decreasing rainfall (BEST, 2001b). Grand Bahama, Abaco, Andros and New Providence receive the most rainfall and constitute the main areas of underground freshwater reserves (BEST, 2002). As rainwater seeps through the soluble limestone rock, it comes to rest on top of the denser seawater, where it forms lenses of freshwater throughout the islands. There is generally an intervening brackish layer between the two, and freshwater can be discharged along the shoreline during periods of heavy rain (BEST, 2005b). Ninety percent of The Bahamas’s freshwater lens areas occur within five feet of the land surface making the groundwater resource fragile and highly vulnerable to contamination.
The Water & Sewerage Corporation (W&SC) has 60 extraction and distribution systems on 26 separate islands in addition to the unmonitored use of some estimated 12,000 plus private abstractions. W&SC also operates and maintains over 50 water supply systems on 24 Family Islands serving about 70% of the Family Islands population. In 2003, Water Management Consultants found that about 65% of the ground water samples collected and analyzed showed signs of microbiological contamination in New Providence (US Army Corp, 2004). According to a consumer survey discussed in the “Global Assessment of Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Services 2000,” the water quality on the Family Islands is highly variable from acceptable to extremely poor.


      1. Trends

The use of reverse osmosis (RO) for water supply on the Family Islands is increasing, even though it is not economically feasible (USACE, 2004). Currently, there are 23 RO plants operating on 19 islands not including the hundreds of privately operated ones. The primary focus of ground water protection has been on significant supplies in Andros and Abaco. However, it creates a greater dependency on sources of fresh water from reverse osmosis technology (Thurlow, 2007). Ground water supplies will receive limited protection through the Forestry Act, 2010 but their overall protection remains pending under a comprehensive Water Resources or Environmental Act. The most recent recommendation in 2010 for Water & Sanitation, Working Drafts and Legislation again supports the separation of the utility/water supply and regulatory duties of WSC. Specifically, in the "draft Water and Sanitation Act the environmental regulation of the sector would be placed under the control of the Ministry of the Environment and the regulation of tariffs and service standards under the control of the Utilities Regulation and Competition Authority (URCA)" (WSC, 2010).


      1. Threats

Sources of threats to inland waters are:

  • Excavations into and below the water table

  • Over-extraction of groundwater resources resulting in salt water intrusion

  • Pollution – sewage, leachates, fertilizers, industrial wastes, spills or leaks from underground storage tanks

      1. Implication for Human Beings

As a result of groundwater contamination, cost increases are associated with the treatment of water from RO, and/or barging more water to meet the demand throughout The Bahamas. From experience, it is known that water supplies obtained from RO of seawater, cost six to eight times more than water obtained directly from fresh groundwater resources due to high energy cost (USACE, 2004). The cost may be reduced by using renewable energy sources and by increasing the scale in which RO is utilized. In addition, chemical contamination of freshwater poses a major health risk for humans and the surrounding ecosystems. Microbial contamination of freshwater also presents risk of disease and potentially deadly disease outbreaks.


    1. Coastal and Marine Ecosystems

The Bahamas is a coastal country, with the entire population living within the coastal zone. Marine environments cover the greatest area of The Bahamas and are linked in both the flow of energy and matter through biological and ecological cycles (BEST, 2005c) which provide jobs, food and recreational services. Each year thousands of visitors frequent the shores of The Bahamas to dive and fish on the reefs, or cruise the beautiful turquoise and warm aquamarine waters of the archipelago. As a result tourism accounts for more than 50% of the total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) with 67% of the visitor arrivals by sea (Dupuch, 2010). The seagrass meadows and coral reefs along with coastal mangrove wetlands are the environments at the core of the Bahamian economy (Bahamas Environment Handbook). In the past two years, a significant threat to marine species has entered the Bahamian waters in the form of the Lionfish (Pterois volitans). The numbers of lionfish have increased from 2, initially sited in 2006, to tens of thousands throughout the Bahamian archipelago in 2009. It is likely to have an impact not only on native biodiversity, but also on fisheries. Researchers have confirmed that these fish are feeding on commercially important juvenile and adult fish species such as grunts and snapper and it is feared that they are impacting other species as well as coral reefs through their predation of herbivores that keep the reefs free of algae (BEST, 2009).


Figure 1.7: Nassau Grouper



The Bahamian Commercial Fishing Industry is important both socially and economically to The Bahamas. The three main important fisheries in The Bahamas are spiny lobster (Panulirus argus), queen conch (Strombus gigas), stone crab and scale fish – including species of grouper, snappers, jacks, grunts, hog fish and others (BREEF, 1998).
The Bahamas is known as one of the world’s premier flat fishing destinations. Anglers travel from around the globe to hunt in the crystal clear shallows of The Bahamas, seeking the elusive bonefish, known as the Grey Ghost of the Flats. The islands with the greatest economic benefit from flats fishing are Andros and Abaco (BNT, 2010b).
As stated in the Ecological Gap Assessment, the Berry Islands, Bimini, Cay Sal, Long Island and the Southern Bahama Bank are critical areas for marine resources, and none of these areas currently receive any form of protection. The current marine protected areas do not provide adequate connectivity between reef and nearby mangrove nurseries areas.
Many different species of seabirds can be found in The Bahamas, particularly on San Salvador Island (Hayes, 2003). Species include Audubon’s shearwater, white-tailed tropic bird, magnificent frigdate bird, brown booby, red-footed booby, double-crested cormorant, laughing gull, brown noddy, gull-billed tern, royal tern, roseate tern, bridled tern, sooty tern, and least tern.



      1. Status

        1. Pelagic Ecosystem

The pelagic ecosystem consists of the Tongue of the Ocean, Exuma Sound, Great Bahama Canyon, Gulf Stream and the Atlantic Ocean. The pelagic environment of The Bahamas (top 3000 ft of water) is attractive to deep-diving whale and dolphin species, such as short-finned pilot whales, melon-headed whales and Atlantic spotted dolphins, many of which occur year-round in these pelagic environments (Claridge, 2006). Additionally, some baleen whales, such as endangered humpback whales, may occur during winter. The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is the area northeast of Little Bahama Bank and covers 260,000 square miles of islands, banks, reefs, shipping lanes, and pelagic fisheries (BEST, 2004). It sustains an enormous food network from plankton to blue marlin and giant tuna. Sportfish found in the pelagic ecosystem are tuna, wahoo and blue marlin (National Fish of The Bahamas). Spiny lobster larvae can spend up to nine months adrift in pelagic environments, while conch larvae drift in these environments for 3 to 4 weeks.
Both oceanic and coastal ecotypes of Common Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) occur in The Bahamas but the coastal ecotype is limited in its range to the shallow water environment of the carbonate banks. These two populations are genetically distinct (Parsons et al. 2006, Tezanos-Pinto et al. 2008). Multi-year mark-recapture photographic studies have, shown that an estimated 1,600 Common Bottlenose Dolphin reside on Little Bahama Bank, where they occur in small subpopulations which should be managed as discrete stocks (Claridge, 1994, Durban et al. 2000). See Table 1.5 for a list of marine mammals found in The Bahamas.
Table 1.5: Marine mammals found in The Bahamas

Common bottlenose dolphin

Tursiops truncatus

Atlantic spotted dolphin

Stenella frontalis


Pan-tropical spotted dolphin

Stenella attenuata

Short-finned pilot whale

Globicephala macrorhynchus

Rough-toothed dolphin

Steno bredanensis

Fraser's dolphin

Lagenodelphis hosei

Striped dolphin

Stenella coeruleoalba

Risso's dolphin

Grampus griseus

Melon-headed whale

Peponocephala electra

Pygmy killer whale

Feresa attenuata

False killer whale

Pseudorca crassidens

Killer whale

Orcinus orca

Blainville’s beaked whale

Mesoplodon densirostris

GervIAS’ beaked whale

Mesoplodon europaeus

Cuvier's beaked whale

Ziphius cavirostris

Dwarf sperm whale

Kogia sima

Sperm whale

Physeter macrocephalus

Minke whale

Balaenoptera acutorostrata

Pygmy sperm whale

Kogia breviceps

Bryde’s whale

Balaenoptera edeni

Caribbean monk seal (extinct)

Monachus tropicalis

Humpback whale

Megaptera novaeangliae

West Indian manatee

Trichechus manatus

Hooded seal

Cystophora cristata

Fin whale

Balaenoptera physalus







Source: BMMRO, 2010

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