Social Evaluation Study for the Milne Bay Community-Based Coastal and Marine Conservation Program png/99/G41 Jeff Kinch April 2001 unops contract for Services Ref

Milne Bay, as PNG’s largest maritime Province, is a key conservation priority within PNG, and a global priority within its own right. Milne Bay Province has a sea area of approximately 110,000 km² containing 13,000 km² of coral reefs (Frelink, 1983), which is equivalent to 32% of PNG’s total reef area (Munro, 1989; Dalzell and Wright, 1986).

Rapid Assessment Programs (RAPs) were conducted in Milne Bay Province in 1997 and 2000, with sponsorship by Conservation International (CI) (see Werner and Allen, 1998; Kinch, 2000d; Mitchell, 2000b,c). The RAPs recorded approximately 945 species of molluscs (Wells, 2000), over 429 species of reef coral (Fenner & Turak, 2000) and 1,109 known reef and shore fish species (Allen, 2000; Werner and Allen, 1998). This inventory work continues to uncover new endemics, new species of coral, fish and other fauna, and the area contains many globally rare species, including endangered marine fauna such as the dugong, marine turtles, giant clams and black corals (Seeto, 2000).

This Zone will be established during the first five years of the program, and encompasses the Nuakata region, East Cape, Sideia-Basilaki Islands, the Engineer and Conflict Groups, Long Reef and a portion of the Calvados Chain (Louisiade Archipelago). This large Zone includes a sea and land area of 22,850 km² and 250 km², respectively, and is representative of a diverse range of habitats and biodiversity (Seeto, 2000). In CBMMZC 1 the Nuakata region (CBMMCA 1), the Conflict Group (CBMMCA 2) and Bramble Haven (CBMMCA 3) were found to be the richest areas for reef fish and corals (see Allen, 2000; Fenner, 2000). These areas were noted as critical areas for management and conservation activities.

The Nuakata-East Cape area has numerous shoals, platform and fringing reefs that support a rich diversity of corals and fishes. The main island of Nuakata supports a diverse assemblage of fish, reflecting its habitat diversity, which includes mangroves, sheltered bays with fringing reefs, and exposed seaward slopes. The small adjacent island of Boirama was the site of the highest fish count for all RAPs and is an area heavily targeted by Nuakata fishermen (Seeto, 2000).

The Conflict Atoll is located midway between the Engineer Group and the Deboyne Islands. This atoll supports the highest number of fish species surveyed in Milne Bay Province. The richest areas are on the outer, seaward slope of the small islets that encircle the central lagoon. The reefs at the Conflicts are possibly the best atoll-type environments in the Province. The beaches here are also an important nesting area for the globally endangered green and hawksbill turtles (Seeto, 2000).

The West Louisiades-Bramble Haven region, is a very diverse area for fishes and corals due to a good variety of habitats. This region features small barrier reef islands, superb outer reef drop-offs and abundant lagoon patch reefs. The lagoon patch reefs around Panasia were very good for fishes, and Bramble Haven was one of the best sites for corals and fishes. Bramble Haven and the small barrier islands of the western-most portion of the Calvados Chain are also the most important nesting areas in the Province for green and hawksbill turtles, and the barrier islands are important rookeries for various terns and the Nicobar Pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica). The Nicobar Pigeon is on the IUCN Red List as a Conservation Dependent species (Seeto, 2000).

Zone 2 will be established during the second phase of the MBP. It encompasses the southeastern end of the Louisiade Archipelago, which includes the Calvados Chain, Sudest Island and Rossel Island. This Zone has a sea and land area of 10,700 km² and 1000 km², respectively. The Louisiades contain seagrass beds, sand/rubble bottoms and numerous reef types, including lagoon type reefs, outer reefs/passages, platform/patch reefs and the Province’s most extensive and best-developed barrier reef. The area is rich in coral and fish species with relatively pristine coral reefs. Giant clams were also found to be more abundant in this area compared to the rest of the Province (Seeto, 2000).

This last Zone will also be established during the second phase of the MBP. It encompasses the north coast mainland, the D'Entrecasteaux group and the Amphlett Islands. This Zone has a sea and land area of approximately 13,250 km² and 2750 km², respectively, and is representative of a large variety of habitats including seagrass and mangrove areas, island and mainland fringing reefs and patch/platform reefs. Nesting and roosting areas for the White-bellied Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster), Pied Imperial Pigeon (Ducula bicolor) and Uniform Swiftlets (Collocalia vanikorensis) are also present (Seeto, 2000).

The climate of the CBMMCAs is determined by their oceanic near-equatorial setting, and is consequently controlled by the presence of warm humid airmasses. These are produced by the meridional or north-south movements across the equator of the Hadley Circulations which converge in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone, and the zonal east west moving Walker Circulations (Sullivan, 1991). The CBMMCAs are considered to be typical of the coastal and lowland areas of Papua New Guinea and is categorised as ‘lowland humid’ (McAlpine et al, 1983) with little seasonal variation in temperature or humidity.

Rainfall in Zone 1 is generally heavier between the months of January to May, with the months June to August the driest. Rainfall recorded for Brooker (CBMMCA 3) over a 12-month period from October 1998 to September 1999 yielded 1468.5 mms over 147 days; in comparison, Misima Mines Limited (MML) received 3493.3 mms over 256 days (Kinch, 1999). For the Nuakata and the Engineers (CBMMCAs 1 and 2) the drier months are November to February.

All Zones experience two seasons annually, that of prevailing southeasterly winds, usually lasting 8-9 months, commencing in March or April where the winds blow almost continuously and often producing onshore winds up to 30 knots. The northwesterly monsoon blows between December and March. Doldrum periods follow at the end and beginning of each wind shift.

The islands of Zones 1 and 2 are the partly drowned continuation of the Owen Stanley Range (Brass, 1959; Krause, 1967). All types of Pacific islands - continental, volcanic, atoll, raised coral limestone reef, and coral cay are represented in the Zone 1. Some islands are composed mainly of low-grade schist that consists of a well-bedded series of peltic siltstone, sandstone and minor conglomerate. These are thought to represent Mesozoic sediments metamorphosed during the Eocene (Smith, 1973).

Soils in the Zone 1 belong to the morphological groups of Eutropepts and Dystropepts. These are seen as red and yellow clays and dark colluvila soils (Rayner and Rayner, 1989). Most soils are quite shallow with a high percentage of rock mixed in. Overall soil fertility in the CBMMCAs with the possible exclusion of CBMMCA 1 is deficient in all nutrients, particularly Nitrogen and Phosphorous, Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium and Sodium (cf Rayner and Rayner, 1989). Island soils also contain high levels of sodium from sea spray. This is particularly a problem after intense cyclonic and storm activity and retards the soil until the salt is leached out by progressive rainfall.

Unlike the much earlier dates for evidence of human occupation found elsewhere in Papua New Guinea, there are no dates earlier than about 2000 years ago for the Zones (Bickler 1998; Irwin, 1991).

Louis Vaez de Torres is acknowledged as the first European to visit the Louisiade Archipelago (encompassing Zones 1 and 2) in 1606 (Whiting, 1975; Brass, 1959). Louis Antoine de Bougainville later sailed through the area in 1768 and named the area Golfe de la Louisiade. The area was left largely unexplored until Bruny D'Entrecasteaux, arrived in 1793 searching for the lost La Perouse (Brass, 1959). The major island group in Zone 3, the D'Entrecasteaux take their name from this seafarer. It is possible that the Malays and the Chinese knew of the islands in Zones 1 and 2 and had visited them prior to any Europeans.

Preliminary ethnological investigations in the Zones were conducted by a French scholar, Mr. Hamy, who in 1888 labeled the people of the CBMMCAs as belonging to the Massim culture. Although this term has been considered a corruption of the word Misima, Marist Missionaries were using it as early as 1847, and it appears to have been the Woodlark term applied to people from the Louisiades (Zones 1 and 2) and the D'Entrecasteaux (Zone 3) (Young, 1983; Affleck, 1983).

Oral tradition records a marked increase in warfare during the decades before the British began to extend colonial control over the region in 1888. In the late 19^th Century it was unsafe to dwell along the coasts of the Sudest Group as Brooker people habitually raided them (see Lepowsky, 1993; Forbes, 1886; Douglas, 1888-1889; Bevan, 1890; Murray, 1912). This may have been due to a rise in the population of the small, infertile, drought-ridden islands like Brooker, but there is scant evidence of population increase at this time, though some evidence of depopulation, for example Tubetube (see McIntyre, 1983a). Another contributing factor was the number of rifles traded to the islanders by unscrupulous white traders from the 1860s to the 1880s, plus the capturing of weapons following surprise attacks on Europeans. Several such incidences occurred at Brooker (CBMMCA 3) and in the Engineers (CBMMCA 2).

Unarguably, Christian missionary influence has been of major importance throughout the Zones. In 1889, Sir William McGregor, Governor of Papua, visited Australia and encouraged the Methodist Church to begin Mission work in Papua. In 1890, at the general conference of the Australian Methodist Church, delegates decided to send Reverend George Brown to survey eastern Papua. He visited Rossel, Woodlark, Misima, the Trobriands and the D’Entrecastaux Islands before deciding on Dobu as the Methodists’ headquarters.

The church is the focus for communal gatherings of a social or recreational nature as well as for worship. Apart from being an avenue for gaining prestige, the church is an institution of importance in every village. The churches, while stopping many cultural practices, reinforced others. Its new moral atmosphere which stressed fluid social interaction and generosity made it possible for people to fulfill their traditional responsibilities in a ‘better way’ than in the days of warring. People began to sit together and eat communally and also started singing hymns as part of mourning. Today people sing all night and are paid by food for their efforts. The Coming of the Light and subsequent pacification also opened up new avenues for trade and the redistribution of commodities and better food security. The propriety of people sailing the canoes on a Sunday became an important question, and still is. Since work is not allowed on Sunday, a great deal of fishing is now done on Friday and Saturday.

All the Zones have had a long history of millenarian movements in response to change. In 1893 there was a cult on the mainland of Milne Bay (Roe 1961). In the 1930s a cult was formed on Misima by a man called Buliga and continues today under the leadership of his nephew (Hess 1982; Lepowsky 1989, 1993; Macintyre 1990). In the period immediately preceding the Japanese invasion of the region, Buliga’s movement gained momentum. In the resulting chaos, the Australian administration fled scared of an attack that never came. At this time, Buliga made further promises of material wealth and prosperous times, which failed to appear. People became disillusioned with him and he was forced to flee. He finally arrived on Motorina after a circuitous route via Ebora. The Australian Military sent an officer down there to arrest him and he was subsequently murdered by Buliga and his band of followers. Ten people were later tried and sentenced to death, though Buliga committed suicide before this could happen. The cargo cult was revived by Buliga’s nephew in the 1950s and in 1973 based itself at Boma at Misima. The cult has now shifted its focus from being a millenarian movement to one of a relayer of messages from departed ancestors (see McIntyre, 1987).

Fighting in the Second World War never actually made it to any of the CBMMCAs though there were regular visits from American Navy ships and the Australian Military Administration, and the Japanese had a floatplane base in Deboyne Lagoon at Panaeati (CBMMCA 2) (Nelson, 1976). The Battle of the Coral Sea was watched from afar, and several planes that were downed during the fighting now make important dive sites for the local live-aboard dive operators.

The Australian Administration introduced a system of Local Government Councils (LGC) in the 1950s (Berde, 1983). In 1952 the Louisiade LGC was formed and in 1953 extended to the area around Milne Bay itself. Correspondingly, Ward Divisions were delineated and Councillors elected. The Louisiade LGC covered the Deboyne and Calvados Wards (CBMMCAs 2 and 3). This included the whole area of Misima District until late 1978, when the eastern part of the District (Rossel, Sudest and East Calvados (Zone 2), dissatisfied with Misima domination of the council, broke away to form the Yeleamba LGC (Lepowsky 1983; Lepowsky 1993). During this period there was considerable council activity and regular community meetings.