Report No 9 Women and Development in Laos Report prepared for Women, Health and Population Division, Australian International Development Assistance Bureau by Sheila Thomson and Sally Baden February 1993 contents
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7.1 Lao Women’s UnionThe Lao Women’s Union (LWU) is a mass-based organisation with a membership of 500 132 women, almost half of the female population of Laos aged 15-60 years (Government of Laos P.D.R and UNICEF, 1991). The organisation extends from the national level where it has the status of Ministry, through to the village level. The LWU has links with every ministry, state organisation and government sector (UNICEF 1987: 72.) Given the size and level of organisation of the LWU, it appears to be the only viable institutional channel through which to mobilise women, or implement projects or programmes specifically aimed at women. The LWU was established by the LPRP in 1955 under the name of the Lao Patriotic Women’s Association. For many years the primary task of the organisation was to mobilize women in support of the revolutionary struggle. From 1975 onwards, the Patriotic Women’s Association mobilised women in the tasks of national reconstruction and building socialism. Defending women’s specific interests was only a secondary concern. In fact, the organisation’s slogan of the ‘three goods and two responsibilities’ contradicted their goals for women’s emancipation. Women were encouraged to be good citizens, good mothers and good wives. Furthermore, they were expected to seek employment outside the home and to actively participate in national construction and defence. (Ng 1991: 176.) Nowhere in the LWU programme was there any mention that men should equally share in household tasks. In 1984, the LWU held its first national congress and changed its name. A second congress was held in 1989 where the tasks and roles of the LWU were more clearly defined. A small group of more educated women assumed leadership positions at this time, and the organisation has more recently been shifting its emphasis to directly addressing the needs of women, particularly poor rural women. (Government of Laos P.D.R and UNICEF, 1991: 6.) The Union is presently involved in several activities to promote women’s interests. These include collaboration with the Ministry of Education in campaigns to combat female illiteracy especially among adult women and women of ethnic minorities; training for women in general health care, hygiene, child/natal care and nutrition; and introduction of time saving technologies for women and providing skills training for income generation. (Iinuma 1992: 10.) The LWU, however, faces several constraints which include lack of adequate funding and lack of trained personnel to implement projects. These needs are now increasingly being addressed by international donor agencies and some of these efforts will be discussed in the following section. 7.2 International assistanceFollowing the adoption of the NEM, several non-governmental agencies, UN organisations and some bilateral donors initiated women’s projects in Laos. Funds and technical assistance are being directed towards programmes related to agriculture, health care and sanitation, income generation, child care and institution building. UNICEF and the Lao Government have set up a Women’s Development Programme (1992-6) working through the LWU, with an emphasis on women and child survival, health and development. Interventions are planned in the health, education and water and sanitation sectors. The institutional and information base for women and development activities will also be addressed by: enhancing the capacity of the LWU; improved gender disaggregated data collection; gender sensitization of policy makers; and women focused community development projects. (Government of Laos P.D.R and UNICEF, 1991: 6-10.) A list of other agencies currently supporting women’s projects in Laos and the activities they are supporting is presented in Table 5. 8. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS In spite of the long-standing political priority given to gender equality by the LPRP and the central role of women in the national and household economy, women in Laos continue to be marginalised by male dominated social and political institutions and restricted in their educational and employment opportunities. They also continue to have the major responsibility for domestic labour, at the same time as engaging in numerous activities to maintain household living standards often under conditions of extreme hardship. Women of the highland ethnic minorities are particularly disadvantaged due to the isolation and underdevelopment of these areas and to more male dominated socio-cultural institutions and attitudes. Furthermore, whilst some women may be in a position to benefit from the current thrust towards economic liberalisation, it is important to be aware that many maybe negatively affected by the wide ranging economic reforms. Interventions are required at various levels to ensure that women’s interests are kept at the forefront of the current processes of economic and political change in Laos. Some tentative suggestions are: Macro policy and institutional interventions 1. To promote more systematic consideration of gender concerns at the macro policy level, for example, in decisions on the allocation of government expenditure (inter- and intra-sectorally); in changes in trade policy, given the possible impact of this on women’s productive activities; in the promotion and regulation of export oriented industries where women are likely to constitute the major part of the labour force. 2. To provide financial aid and institution building assistance to the LWU, in particular to enhance its adminstrative and managerial capacity and its ability to lobby and liaise with technical ministries; 3. To assist in developing a reliable data base for women in Laos especially for assessing the situation and needs of Midland and Highland women. 4. To encourage more participatory assessment of women’s needs at local levels and provide women with the training and resources to organise their own development activities and to intervene in local decision making and resource allocating institutions more effectively. 5. To prioritise investment in health and education in order to extend and improve the quality of provision, particularly in underserved minority areas. Health 6. To fund and support the development of appropriate health care programmes which integrate nutrition, sanitation, education and preventative measures such as immunization. This should be prioritised over institution based health care which would be inaccessible to the majority of the population. The improvement of women’s and children’s health status, particularly ethnic minorities, should be a major priority within this. 7. To promote an integrated approach to reproductive health, incorporating family planning, maternal and child health and HIV/AIDS prevention activities. Experience elsewhere has shown that men also need to be drawn into family planning and AIDS awareness activities for them to be effective. Education 8. To provide incentives to encourage female attendance and reduce drop out rates of girls. Scholarships, school feeding programmes, more local provison of schools and flexible timing are possible ways to encourage increased female enrollment and reduce drop out rates. This should be in the context of an overall drive to improve the coverage and quality of educational provision. 9. Renewed efforts are needed to combat female illiteracy, possibly in the context of other local development efforts (e.g. in health or agriculture). These need to be sensitive to the multiple demands on women’s time. Agriculture 10. Women should be recognised as farmers and provided with credit and training in new production techniques so that they can reduce their work burden and increase their labour productivity. Programmes should be sensitive to women’s time constraints which are in part determined by seasonality in agricultural requirements and by regional differences. Small scale industry 11. Women’s home based handicrafts production needs to be supported and promoted (possibly for export), particularly in view of increased competition from imported manufactured goods. Marketing 12. Women are already heavily engaged in small scale marketing operations in both rural and urban areas. This activity should be supported by the provision of credit facilities, combined with training in business and information skills, and the formation of women’s marketing organisations. BIBLIOGRAPHY*BRIDGE, 1992a, ‘Social, economic and health implications of adjustment for women in developing countries,’ extended memorandum for DANIDA, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton ----------, 1992b, Women, HIV/AIDS and development: towards gender appropriate strategies in South East Asia and the South Pacific,’ report prepared for Women, Health and Population Division, Australian International Development Assistance Bureau, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton Bourdet, Y., 1991, Laos: reforming Laos’ economic system, Macroeconomic Studies 22/91, Institute of Economic Research, University of Lund, Sweden Brown, MacAlister and Zasloff, Joseph J., 1986, Apprentice Revolutionaries: The Communist Movement in Laos 1930-1985, Stanford, Hoover Institution Press. Evans, Grant, 1990, Lao Peasants Under Socialism, Yale University Press, London *Foley, P. J. and Vongsak, D., 1991, ‘Demographic health survey: Xay Thani District of Vientiane Prefecture, Lao People’s Democratic Republic,’ in Asia-Pacific Population Journal, Vol. 6, No. 4, UNESCAP, Bangkok *Frisen, C. M., 1991, ‘Population characteristics in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic,’ in Asia-Pacific Population Journal, Vol. 6, No. 2, UNESCAP, Bangkok *Government of the Lao P.D.R., 1992, The Lao People’s Democratic Republic: Volume I: Socio-Economic Development Strategies, Government of the Lao P.D.R., Vientiane *Government of the Lao P.D.R. and UNICEF, 1991, Draft Plan of Operations for Women’s Development 1992-1996, Government of the Lao P.D.R. and UNICEF, Vientiane Hakangard, Agneta, 1990, ‘Women in shifting cultivation: Luang Prabang province, Lao P.D.R,’ Development Studies Unit Report No 18, Department of Social Anthropology, Stockholm University, Stockholm *Heyzer, Noeleen, 1986, Working Women in Southeast Asia: Development, Subordination, and Emancipation, Open University Press, Milton Keynes *Iinuma, Takeko, 1992, ‘Country gender analysis for the Lao People’s Democratic Republic,’ report prepared for the Development Cooperation Office of the Swedish International Development Agency, Stockholm *Ireson, Carol J., 1989, ‘The role of women in forestry in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic,’ Mimeo, Silvinova Forestry Consultants *----------, 1991, ‘Women’s forest work in Laos,’ in Society and Natural Resources, Vol. 4 ----------, 1992, ‘Changes in field, forest and family: rural women’s work and status in post-revolutionary Laos’ in Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol. 24, No. 4, Oct-Dec Japan International Cooperation Agency, 1990, ‘The observation report on infectious diseases in Lao P.D.R,’ MCR/JR/90-22 Jayaweera, S., 1992, ‘Women and structural adjustment in Asia: a review of evidence,’ paper prepared for the Commonwealth Secretariat Asian Regional Seminar on Women, Adjustment and Economic Change in Asia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 5-8 January 1993 Mukherjee, C., and Jose, A. V., 1982, Report of A Survey of Rural Households in the Hat Xai Fong District in Vientiane Province of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Asia Employment Programme (ILO-ARTEP), Bangkok
Thomson, Suteera, 1990, ‘Gender issues in Thailand development,’ paper prepared for UNDP, Gender and Development Research Institute, Bangkok United Nations, 1991, The World’s Women 1970-1990: Trends and Statistics, United Nations Statistical Office, New York UNDP, 1992, Human Development Report, UNDP *UNESCO, 1989, ‘Status of Women: Laos,’ Social and Human Sciences in Asia and the Pacific, RUSHAP Series on Monographs and Occasional Papers No 29, UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok *UNICEF, 1987a, An Analysis of the Situation of Children and Women in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, UNICEF, Vientiane ----------, 1987b, ‘Country programme recommendations: Lao P.D.R.,’ UNICEF, New York *WHO, 1989, Country Review: Laos P.D.R, WPR/WR 60/5 Zasloff, Joseph J. and Leonard Unger (eds.), 1991, Laos: Beyond the Revolution, Macmillan, London FIGURES AND TABLESTable 1: Gender Division of Labour for Lao Loum Task Women Men Clearing of land X Sowing X Transplanting rice X Weeding X Harvesting rice X X Threshing rice X X Gleaning/cleaning rice X Vegetable growing X Cultivation of secondary crops X Forest product collection X Hunting X Fishing X X Raising chickens/pigs X Raising buffalo/horses/cattle X Child care X Weaving X Food preparation X House cleaning X Sources: Iinuma 1992; UNESCO 1989; Govt. of Laos PDR 1991; Ireson 1989, 1991. Table 2: Regional Variation in Primary School Enrolment Ratios (per cent) Province Enrolment Vientiane Municipality 94 Phongsaly 42 Luang Namtha 30 Oudomsay 60 Bokeo 60
Luang Prabang 55 Houa Phanh 65 Sayaboury 76 Xieng Khouang 67 Vientiane 92 Bolikhamxay 67 Khammouane 68 Savannakhet 70 Saravane 65 Sekong 10 Champassak 80 Attapeu 46 Source: UNESCO 1989
Year(s) Whole Vientiane Rural Country provinces Life Expectancy 1980-1990 50 ... ... (years)
(deaths/100,000 live births)
(deaths/1,000 live births)
Rate 1990 152 ... 300 (deaths/1,000 live births)
(ratio)
(births per woman) Sources: Government of Laos PRD 1991; UN 1991; WHO 1989; UNESCO 1989; UNESCAP 1991 b
Ministry of Ministry of Ministry of Ministry of Ministry of Agriculture Health Education Industry Public Works trans and comm Level T F % T F % T F % T F % T F % Director/ Managerial 36 3 8.0 13 1 7.7 n/a n/a n/a 41 4 9.8 n/a n/a n/a Upper 299 5 1.7 244 73 29.9 1036 242 23.4 153 9 5.9 75 2 2.7 Middle 806 171 21.2 962 380 39.5 3168 1247 39.4 240 21 8.8 530 27 5.1 Lower 2460 335 13.6 9340 4942 52.9 16130 5254 32.6 637 254 39.9 1111 172 15.5 Source: Lao Women’s Union Table 5: External Assistance for Women’s Projects Agency Project/Activity Project Site AIDAB Financial support to SCF Sayaboury and Australia Borikhamsay
Savannakhet, and Sayaboury Poultry, vegetable growing, Borikhamsay mother and child health, and Savannakhet and rice mills Family Planning Service of birth spacing Vientiane International and mother and child health Prefecture Assistance care. Training of health workers
International workers. Prefecture, Volunteer Poultry and well drilling Vientiane Province, Center (JVC) Borikhamsay, and Khammouane Mennonite Weaving training, promotion Phongsali Central of traditional design, Committee revolving loan fund, and gravity water supply Save the Weaving, sericulture, rice Sayaboury and Children, mill, rice bank, cattle Borikhamsaty Australia bank, fruit tree plantation, and gravity water supply Save the Provision of trainers for Vientiane Children, UK mother and child health Prefecture, care Vientiane Province, Borkhamsay, and Khammouane
livestock, mother and child health care, birth spacing, and silk handicraft. Components for women in forestry projects. Institution building of the Lao Women’s Union Table 5: External Assistance for Women’s Projects (continued) Agency Project/Activity Project Site Terres des Rice mill, well, cattle Bokeo Hommes bank, and training in development/nutrition/ food conservation UNESCO Training in development of curriculum and teaching materials for women
and Child Health Institute UNICEF Rice mill, tile production, Houaphan, cattle bank, rice bank, Xieng Khouang, mulberry plantation, Khammouane and weaving, rain water jar, Savannakhet wells, poultry, pig raising, revolving fund, and village clinic. Training in project management UNIFEM Financial support to the Vientiane Lao Women’s Union, JVC Prefecture, and QSL Vientiane Province, Borikhamsay, Khammouane, and Oudomsay
Laos workload and reinforcement Louang Prabang of women’s productivity (rice mills, clean water system, cattle bank, cotton plantation, rice terrace, and revolving fund) VSO English training for the Vientiane Lao Women’s Union Prefecture WHO Support to the Mother and Child Institute. Maternal mortality data analysis
Source: Iinuma 1992 NOTEThis report was written based entirely on the limited documentary sources cited in the attached bibliography. The report was compiled by Sheila Thomson, a post-graduate student on the MA in Gender and Development at IDS with a special interest in South-east Asia, and Sally Baden, BRIDGE Manager. Several of the sources cited were supplied by: Dr Suteera Thomson Gender and Development Research Institute 501/1 Mu 3 Dechatungka Rd. Sikan, Donumuang, Bangkok 10210 THAILAND Tel: 010 66 2 566-2288; 566-1774 Fax: 010 66 2 566-3481 Dr Thomson has recently visited Laos and is currently compiling her own report on gender and development issues there. Dr Carole Ireson, one of the main academic specialists on women in Laos (see bibliography) is currently writing a book on gender issues in Laos. 1 Agriculture is broadly defined in this report to include shifting cultivation and forestry. 2 In 1978, the Lao Government adopted a collectivization programme for the country which met with considerable opposition from the rural population. The collective ownership programme also had a negative impact on agricultural output, and was largely abandoned in late 1979. The existing cooperatives were maintained and subsidised, and in the mid eighties about one fifth of the agricultural population worked in cooperatives. Since then their importance has diminished and is likely to continue doing so. Under new policies adopted in 1988, many cooperatives have now returned their land to the original owners to farm individually. Although land is formally national property, private farmers have individual cultivation rights which are hereditable and saleable. (Bourdet, 1991: 7; Ireson, 1989: 9.) 3 There is little data on the pervasiveness of gender differentials in pay in Laos. Iinuma states that in road construction and maintenance work, women and men are paid the same (Iinuma, 1992: 10). In agricultural co-operatives, however, there are instances of men and women receiving different workpoint remuneration for performing the same tasks (UNESCO, 1989: 30). More systematic research is needed to reveal the patterns of gender differentials in pay and remuneration. 4 The implication here is that where husband and wife both work in the public sector, the household derives maximum benefit if the woman leaves her job to exploit more lucrative trading opportunities whilst the man remains in the high prestige post and retains access to subsidised goods and other fringe benefits. It is not known to what extent these benefits have been affected under the economic reform programme. 5 Some sources suggest that malnutrition in Laos is often the result of a lack of education about nutrition. For example the traditional post partum food for most women consists of salted boiled rice which may be women’s exclusive diet for up to three weeks after child birth. (WHO, 1989: 8.) * The references marked with an asterisk were extensively drawn on in the text. |