Managing the Miombo Woodlands of Southern Africa Policies, incentives and options

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6Discussion and conclusions

Forests provide important sources of livelihood income for rural people, and provide safety nets in times of need (Angelsen and Wunder, 2003; Coomes et al., 2004; Takasaki et al., 2004). In particular, rural households depend on forest and woodland resources to meet their energy needs, for construction and roofing materials, fodder for livestock, wild foods that support a healthy diet, and medicine. Moreover, forest product trade can be an important source of income (Oksanen and Mersmann, 2003). The situation in Zambia is no different, where forest income accounts for between 20 and 60 percent of the total household income (subsistence and cash) in the different study sites. Single forest products such as caterpillars, charcoal and honey may even provide more cash income than agriculture, although commercial forest production is determined by various conditions, including vegetation type and access to markets. Within communities some households are more forest-dependent than others due to a number of factors such as age, household size and level of non-forest income. The value of forest production is generally higher for richer households, but the value in relation to total household production is highest for poor households.
This raises important considerations for assessing the role of forests to poverty alleviation. Sunderlin et al. (2005) specify two types of poverty alleviation, applied at the household level, in association with forest resources. These are:

Poverty avoidance or mitigation: forests resources serve a safety net function, or as a gap filler, including as a source of petty cash; and
Poverty elimination: forest resources help lift the household out of poverty by functioning as a source of savings, investment, accumulation, asset building, and permanent increases in income and welfare.

This distinction appears important in the Zambia context, where it is the poorest of the poor who are most reliant on forest resources. The dry forests do not appear to function as a means to poverty elimination, by themselves, but are crucial to poverty mitigation, supplying huge inputs to the poorest of the poor. The key issue is how to preserve the role of forests as safety nets in locations where other forms of social insurance cannot take place. Two interrelated problems need to be solved: lack of security of access to the woodlands for the poor, and issues related to unsustainable harvests.

Urban demand for certain forest products (e.g. charcoal, caterpillars and honey) has created a vibrant trade, which provides cash income to thousands of rural households, often exceeding that from agriculture. This cash is often used to support other income generating activities, such as crop production. The data suggests that households may use forests to increase their investments in other activities and thereby their total income. As non-farm income increases, dependence on forest production decreases, but rich households continue to derive significant incomes from forest products. Cash income from a single product, such as timber in one of our study areas (Paul Kalemba), may be more than double that of the average total annual income. Forests could thus also be seen as having a function of lifting people out of poverty, although not as a means alone. Increasing incomes at national level by increasing volumes produced is not a desirable solution, due to issues of sustainability and existing barriers such as accessibility of the forest resources and markets. Most forest products are traded as raw materials and value-addition could have the potential to increase incomes at household and national level. However, barriers that constrain rural enterprise development in general (e.g. poor infrastructure and market linkages) will need to be overcome. Private investment and access to financial services are thereby necessary. Moreover, a conducive policy environment could support forest-based enterprises as well as increase direct government income at national level, although raising the collected revenue will, in essence, be a direct tax on the poor.
Official statistics suggest that forestry contributes 5.2 percent to the GDP. However, this figure underestimates the contribution of forests to Zambian households, given that subsistence use and much informal trade is not captured in GDP calculations. A number of forest products are very important at national level, most notably charcoal and fuelwood. Dry forests are the primary source of household energy for more than 70% of the population. But there is also degradation and deforestation, as a result, for example, of charcoal production. Harvest needs to be placed on a sustainable footing, but one of the only solutions may be the substitution of woodfuel with other sources of energy.
In summary, the high level of dependence on forest resources should be important in driving policy processes related to forestry and poverty alleviation. This has not generally been the case, with perhaps honey being the exception. The importance of honey to both household and national income has been shown above. The Zambian government acknowledges the importance of beekeeping and is now formulating a policy for the sector.

7Acknowledgements

The work was funded primarily by the World Bank-administered Trust Fund for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development. We thank Peter Dewees for detailed comments on an earlier draft. Some staff time was contributed through the Sida-funded dry forest project to CIFOR.

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