Managing the Miombo Woodlands of Southern Africa Policies, incentives and options

http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/pen/_ref/home/index.htm).

34 There were cases where households were listed in more than one village.

35 Prices quoted by households, including the local market prices where appropriate, in the quarterly surveys were averaged after the end of the quarterly surveys, and used in the valuations.

36 There were some exceptions. For instance, in the case of medicinal herbs, two households came out with figures that were nearly ten times higher than the figures reported by other households.

37 Consumption is often preferred to income as a measure of welfare (Deaton, 1980), but in rural Africa consumption and income are not dissimilar (Cavendish 2000). We also measured consumption in this study; it will be examined in subsequent analyses.

38 All calculations in this study are based on old currency; under the currency reforms, the last three digits in the currency have been removed. The exchange rate fluctuated throughout the study period; however, we use a constant exchange rate of 1US$ = 26,500 MTS.

39 Enumerators had varying educational qualification, with diploma (highest), certification course and high school (lowest).

40 We were warned about ongoing de-mining operation during field work, and were advised not to deviate from the beaten tracks while on foot.

41 We do not define this in terms of number of labour days spent in actual resource extraction. Instead, we use the environmental income (aggregated values of products used at home and products sold for cash income) per capita.

42 Rainfall in 2006 was normal, and crop yields were normal in the study area.

43 However, as Rose (1999) argued, there could be factors other than shocks considered here which bring about uncertainties in resource use. The test mentioned above cannot be considered as the response to risk. If responses are not correlated, then it could be a response; if there is correlation among the risks then the response may be considered as the net response to all sources of risks, which will lead to a potential omitted variable bias that needs to be addressed.

44 Using the Ramsey RESET test, we could not reject the null hypothesis that the model has no missing variables.

45 The errors turned out to be non-normal. We used log transformation of some of the variables which helped to partially mitigate the problem; yet, the regression failed the skewness-kurtosis test for normality.

46 A well was being built in Nhambita with the help of aid agencies including the PES-project.

47 Department of Health, UK

48 Centre for International Forestry Research (Indonesia) and Charles Darwin University (Australia)

49 This method was used as the basis of the Poverty and Environment Network (PEN) which has embarked on the world-wide collection of a 30+ data sets on forests and household income (http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/pen)

50 These data are drawn from the 1990/91 Income, Consumption and Expenditure Survey conducted by the Zimbabwe Statistics Organisation. Other estimates of poverty in Zimbabwe give higher figures than the ICES. The Poverty Assessment Study Survey of 1995 estimated overall poverty to be 62 percent of the population, while Ravallion and Chen (1996) estimated that, in 1993, 39 percent of the population were living on less than US$1 per person per day.

51 For more details on last inequality index, see Appendix 1

52 For simplicity the estimates for expanded income are not shown in this section – those results do not change the conclusions reached in this section.

53 A positive relationship between poverty and household size has frequently been found in studies of poverty. But this is often argued to be an artefact of the equivalence scale used to transform household income or consumption data, for example by using per capita adjustments which overweight children, or by ignoring economies of scale in household production (for a discussion of these points see Lanjouw and Ravallion 1995). However, in our study we have adjusted household income data by using weights for different household members, and we have also included an economies of scale adjustment in our equivalence scale, so these effects should not undermine the result.

54 These conclusions are very similar to those of Grootaert et al (1996), who found higher per capita welfare associated with being in small households with younger heads, larger farms and a non-farm source of income.

55 Decomposition by income source is a difficult procedure, following Shorrocks (1982a, b) which showed that the choice of decomposition rule is totally independent of the choice of inequality index, so that an infinite number of candidate decompositions are compatible with any given inequality measure.

56 Dept of Environmental Science, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, Tel: +27-46-603-7001; Fax = +27-46-622-9319; e-mail: c.shackleton@ru.ac.za

57 Genesis Analytics, Suite 3, Private Bag X1, Melrose Arch, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2076; Tel: +27-11-214-4080; Fax: +27-11-214-4099

58 Genesis Analytics (Pty) Ltd.; Suite 3, Private Bag X1, Melrose Arch, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2076.; Tel: +27-11-214-4080; Fax: +27-11-214-4099