Contents part I religious

Reference has already been made to the two dogmas of Varna Dharma and Asharm Dharma, which are called by the collective names of Varnashram Dharma and which form so fundamental a part of Hinduism. It cannot but be instructive to know the views expressed by the ancient writers on these strange dogmas.

The subject is referred to in the Rig-Veda in the 90th Hymn of the 10th Book. It runs as follows:-

" 1. Purusha has a thousand heads, a thousand eyes. a thousand feet, on every side enveloping the earth he overpassed (if) by a space of ten fingers. 2. Purusha himself is this whole (universe), whatever has been and whatever shall be. He is also the lord of immortality since (or, when) by food he expands. 3. Such is his greatness, and Purusha is superior to this. All existences are a quarter of him: and three-fourths of him are that which is immortal in the sky. 4. With three quarters Purusha mounted upwards. A quarter of him was again produced here. He was then diffused everywhere over-things which eat and things which do not eat. 5. From him was born Viraj, and from Viraj, Purusha. When born, he extended beyond the earth, both behind and before. 6. When the Gods performed a sacrifice

This is a consolidated version of Riddle No. 16 & 17 entitled ' Vamashram Dharma '. This title does not find place in the original Table of Contents. Hence this is placed as Appendix. It is difficult to identify which of the two versions is later. Quotations have been retained in both the texts while the interpretation seems to he modified at various places. This is a 55-page typed copy without having any corrections by the author.—Ed

The Atharva-Veda incorporates the Purusha Sukta. But the order of the verses varies from the order in which they stand in the Rig-Veda. But like the Vajaseniya Sanhita and the Taitterriya Sanhita of the Yajur-Veda the Atharva is not content with the Purusha Sukta. It offers other explanations. They are not as complete and as universal as the Purusha Sukta but they are special to it [f.43] :

"The Brahman was born the first, with ten heads and ten faces. He first drank the soma, he made poison powerless".

"The Gods were afraid of the Rajanya when he was in the womb. They bound him with bonds when he was in the womb. Consequently this Rajanya is born bound. If he were unborn unbound he would go on slaying his enemies. In regard to whatever Rajanya any one desires that he should be born unbound, and should go on slaying his enemies, let him offer for him this Aindra-Birhaspatya oblation. A Rajanya has the character of Indra, and a Brahman is Brihaspati. It is through the Brahman that any one releases the Rajanya from his bond. The golden bond, a gift, manifestly releases from the bond that fetters him. " Purusha as the origin of the four Varnas is not the only explanation of the origin of the Varna system that is to be found in the Vedas. There is another explanation. It speaks of people being descended from Manu and is to be found referred to in the following passages [f.44]:

" Prayers and hymns were formerly congregated in the Indra, in the ceremony which Atharvan, father Manu, and Dadhyanch celebrated ".

Whatever prosperity or succour father Manu obtained by sacrifices, may we gain all that under thy guidance, o Rudra."

" Those pure remedies of yours, O Maruts, those which are most auspicious, ye vigorous gods, those which are beneficient, those which our father Manu chose, those, and the blessing and succour of Rudra, I desire."

" That ancient friend hath been equipped with the powers of the mighty (gods). Father Manu has prepared hymns to him, as portals of success to the gods." "Sacrifice is Manu, our protecting father." " Do ye (gods) deliver, protect, and intercede for us; do not lead us far away from the paternal path of Manu."

"He (Agni) who abides among the offspring of Manu as the invoker (of the gods), is even the lord of these riches."

"Agni, together with the gods, and the children of Manush, celebrating a multiform sacrifice' with hymns etc. "

" Ye gods, Vajas, and Ribhukshans, come to our sacrifice by the path travelled by the gods. that ye, pleasing deities, may institute a sacrifice among these people of Manush on auspicious days." "The people of Manush praise in the sacrifices Agni the invoker." ^Whenever Agni, lord of the people, kindled, abides gratified among the people of Manush, he repels all Rakshasas." Let us now turn to the writing called the Brahmanas and take note of what they have to say on this question. The explanation given by the Sathapatha Brahmana is as follows [f.45] :

"(Uttering) 'bhuh'. Prajapati generated this earth. (Uttering) 'bhuvah' he generated the air, and (uttering) 'svah'. he generated the sky. This universe is co-extensive with these worlds. (The fire) is placed with the whole. Saying ' bhuh ', Prajapati generated the Brahman (saying) 'bhuvah' he generated the Kshattra; (and saying) 'svah', he generated the Vis. The fire is placed with the whole. (Saying) 'bhuh', Prajapati generated himself; (saying 'bhuvah' he generated offspring; (saying) 'svah' he generated animals. This world is so much as self, offspring, and animals. (The fire) is placed with the whole." Besides this there is another explanation to be found in this Brahmans [f.46]:

"Brahma (here, according to the commentator, existing in the form of Agni, and representing the Brahman caste) was formerly . this (universe), one only. Being one, it did not develope. It energetically created an excellent form, the Kshattra, viz., those among the gods who are powers (kshattrani), Indra, Varuna, Soma, Rudra, Parjanya, Yama, Mrityu, Issana. Hence nothing is superior to the Kshattra. Therefore the Brahman sits below the Kshattriya at the rajasuya-sacrifice: he confers that glory on the kshattra (the royal power). This. the Brahma, is the source of the Kshattra: Hence, although the king attains, supremacy, he at the end resorts to the Brahma as his source. Whoever destroys him (the Brahman) destroys his own source. He becomes most miserable, as one who has injured a superior. 24. He did not develope. he created the Viz-Viz., those classes of gods who are designated by troops. Vasus, Rudras, Adityas. Visvedevas, Maruts; 25. He did not develope. He created the Sudra class, Pushan. This earth is Pushan: for she nourishes all that exists. 26. He did not develope. He energetically created an excellent form, Justice (Dharma). This is the ruler (kshattra) of the ruler (kshattra). namely Justice. hence nothing is with Purush as the oblation, the spring was its butter, the summer its fuel, and the autumn its (accompanying) offering. 7. This victim, Purush, born in the beginning, they immolated on the sacrificial grass. With him the gods, the Sadhyas,and the rishis sacrificed. 8. From that universal sacrifice were provided curds and butter. It formed those aerial (creatures) and animals both wild and tame. 9. From the universal sacrifice sprang the rich and saman verses, the metres and the yajush. 10. From it sprang horses, and all animals with two rows of teeth; kine sprang from it; from it goats and sheep. 11. When (the Gods) divided Purusha, into how many parts did they cut him up? What was his mouth " What arms (had he) ? What (two objects) are said (to have been) the thighs and feet ? 12. The Brahmana was his mouth; the Rajanya was made his arms; the being (called) the Vaisya, he was his thighs; the Sudra sprang from his feet. 13. The moon sprang from his soul (manas), the sun from his eye, Indra and Agni from his mouth, and Vayu from his breath. 14. From his navel arose the air, from his head the sky, from his feet the earth, from his ear the (four) quarters; in this manner (the Gods) formed the worlds. 15. When the Gods, performing sacrifice, bound Purusha as a victim, there were seven sticks (struck up) for it (around the fire), and thrice seven pieces of fuel were made. 16. With sacrifice the Gods performed the sacrifice. These were the earliest rites. These great powers have sought the sky, where are the former Sadhyas, gods ".

This hymn is known by its general name Purusha Sukta and is supposed to embody the official doctrine of Varna and Caste.

The first thing to do is to inquire which of the other Vedas accept the theory of the origin of the Varna system as propounded in the Purusha Sukta of the Rig-Veda. Examining the different Vedas from this point of view the result appears to be very striking.

The Sama-Veda has not incorporated the Purusha Sukta among its hymns. Nor does it give any other explanation of the Varna Dharma.

The Yajur-Veda discloses a very great degree of diversity of opinion on this issue. Taking up the case of the White Yajur-Veda separately from that of the Black Yajur-Veda the position as it emerges from a comparison of its three available Sanhitas stands thus. Of the three Sanhitas the Kathaka Sanhita and Maitreyani Sanhita do not make any reference to the Purusha Sukta of the Rig-Veda nor do they make any attempt to give any other explanation of the Varna system. The Vajaseniya Sanhita is the only Sanhita of the Yajur-Veda which incorporates the Purusha Sukta but not without transposition of the verses. But the Vajasaneya Sanhita gives a new and original explanation of the Varna system quite different from what is given in the Purusha Sukta [f.47] :

" He lauded with one. Living beings were formed; Prajapati was the ruler. He lauded with three: the Brahman (Brahman) was created: Brahmanaspati was the ruler. He lauded with five; existing things were created: Bhutanampati was the ruler. He lauded with seven; the seven rishis were created : Dhatri was the ruler. He lauded with nine; the Fathers were created: Aditi was the ruler. He lauded with eleven: the seasons were created: The Artavas were the rulers. He lauded with thirteen: the months were created: the year was the ruler. He lauded with fifteen: the Kshattra (the Kshattriya) was created: Indra was the ruler. He lauded with seventeen: animals were created : Brihaspati was the ruler. He lauded with nineteen : the Sudra and the Arya (Vaisya) were created : day and night were the rulers. He lauded with twenty-one: animals with undivided hoofs were created : Varuna was the ruler. He lauded with twenty-three; small animals were created : Pushan was the ruler. He lauded with twenty-five : wild animals were created : Vayu was the ruler (compare R.V. x. 90, 8). He lauded with twentyseven: heaven and earth separated : Vasus, Rudras, and Adityas separated after them : they were the rulers. He lauded with twentynine; trees were created : Soma was the ruler. He lauded with thirty-one : living beings were created : The first and second halves of the month were the rulers. He lauded with thirty one: existing things were tranquillized; Prajapati Parameshthin was the ruler. "

Turning to the Black Yajur-Veda there is only one Sanhita of it which is available. It is called Taitterriya Sanhita. This Sanhita offers two explanations. The first explanation [f.48] is the same which is given in the Vajaseniya Sanhita as its own original explanation. The second explanation is its own particular explanation and is not to be found in the Vajaseniya Sanhita. It reads as follows [f.49] :

" He (the Vratya) became filled with passions thence sprang the Rajanya ".

" Let the king to whose house the Vratya who knows this, comes as a guest, cause him to be respected as superior to himself. So doing he does no injury to his royal rank, or to his realm. From him arose the Brahman (Brahman) and the Kshattra (Kshatriya). They said, ' Into whom shall we enter ', etc. "

The important point is that while the Vajaseniya Sanhita incorporates the Purusha Sukta from the Rig-Veda the Taiterriya Sanhita altogether omits to take any notice of it whatsoever superior to justice. Therefore the weaker seeks (to overcome) the stronger byjustice, as by a king. This justice is truth. In consequence they say of a man who speaks truth, ' he speaks justice; ' or of a man who is uttering justice, 'he speaks truth. ' For this is both of these. 27. This is the Brahma, Kshattra, Viz. and Sudra.

"Through Agni it became Brahma among the gods, the Brahman among men, through the (divine) Kshattriya a (human) Kshattriya, through the (divine) Vaisya a (human) Vaisya, through the (divine) Sudra a (human) Sudra. Wherefore it is in Agni among the gods and in a Brahman among men, that they seek after an abode. " The Taittiriya Brahmana has the following explanations to offer. First is in the following terms [f.50] :

"This entire (universe) has been created by Brahma. Men say that the Vaisya class was produced from rich-verses. They say that the Yajur-Veda is the womb from which the Kshattriya was born. The Sama-Veda is the source from which the Brahmans sprang. This word the ancients declared to the ancients.

" The second refers only two varnas—only Brahman and Sudra and says [f.51] :

" The Brahman caste-, is sprung from the gods; the Sudra from the Asuras ". The third explains the origin of the Sudras in the following terms [f.52]:

" Let him at his will milk out with a wooden dish. But let not a Sudra milk it out. For this Sudra has sprung from non-existence. They say that that which a Sudra milks out is no oblation. Let not a Sudra milk out the Agnihotra. For they do not purify that. When that passes beyond the filter, then it is an oblation ". The next thing would be to see what explanation the Smritis have to offer for the origin of the Varna system. This is what Manu has to say in his Smriti [f.53] :—

" He (the self-existent) having felt desire, and willing to create various living beings from his own body, first created the waters, and threw into them a seed. 9. That seed became a golden egg, of lustre equal to the sun; in it he himself was born as a Brahma, the parent of all the worlds. 10. The waters are called narah, for they are sprung from Nara; and as they were his first sphere of motion he is therefore called Narayana. II. Produced from the imperceptible eternal, existent and non-existent, cause, they male (purusha) is celebrated in the world as Brahma. 12. After dwelling for a year in the egg, the glorious being, himself, by his own contemplation, split it in twain. That the worlds might be peopled, he caused the Brahman, the Kshattriya, the Vaisya, and the Sudra to issue from his mouth, his arms, his thighs, and his feet. 32. Having divided his own body into two parts, the lord (Brahma) became.with the half a male (purusha) and with the half, a female; and in her he created Viraj. 33. Know, o most excellent twice-born men, that I, whom that male, (purusha) Viraj, himself created, am the creator of all this world. 34. Desiring to produce living creatures, I performed very arduous devotion, and first created ten Maharshis (great rishis), lords of living beings, (35) viz. Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Prachetas, Vasistha, Bhrigu, and Narada. 36. They, endowed with great energy, created other seven Manus, gods, and abodes of gods, and Maharshis of boundless might; (37) Yakshas, Rakshases, Pishchas, Gandharvas, Apsaras, Asuras, Nagas, Serpents, great Birds, and the different classes of Pitris; (38) lightnings, thunderbolts, clouds, portentous atmospheric sounds, comets, and various luminaries; (39) Kinnars, apes, fishes, different sorts of birds, cattle, deer, men, beasts with two rows of teeth; (40) small and large reptiles, mouths, lice, flies, fleas, all gadflies, and gnats, and motionless things of different sorts. 41. Thus by my appointment, and by the force of devotion, was all. This world Both Motionless and Moving, created by those great beings, according to the (previous) actions of each creature. "

There is also another view expressed by Manu in his Smriti as to the basic reasons for dividing men into four classes [f.54] :

" I shall now declare succinctly in order the states which the soul reaches by means of each of these qualities. 40. Souls endowed with the Sattva quality attain to godhead; those having the rajas quality become men; whilst those characterized by tamas always become beasts— such is the threefold destination. 43. Elephants, horses, Sudras and contemptible Mlechhas, lions, tigers, and boars form the middle dark condition..... 46. Kings, Kshattriyas, a King's priests (purohitah), and men whose chief occupation is the war of words, compose the middle condition of passion.... 48. Devotees, ascetics, Brahmans, the deities borne on aerial cars, constellations, and Daityas, constitute the lowest condition of goodness. 49. Sacrificing priests, rishis, gods, the vedas, the celestial luminaries, years, the fathers the Sadhyas, form the second condition of goodness. 50. Brahma, the creators, righteousness, the Great one (mahat) the Unapparent One (avyakta) compose the highest condition of goodness. "

It is interesting to compare with these views: those contained in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

The Ramayana says that the four Varnas are the offspring of Manu, the daughter of Daksha and the wife of Kasyappa [f.55].

"Listen while I declare to you from the commencement all the Prajapatis (lord of creatures) who came into existence in the earliest time. Kardama was the first, then Vokrita, Sesha, Samsraya, the energetic Bahuputra, Sthanu, Marichi, Atri, the strong Kratu, Pulastya, Angiras, Prachetas, Pulaha, Daksha, then Vivasvat, Arishtanemi, and the glorious Kasyapa, who was the last. The Prajapati Daksha is famed to have had sixty daughters. Of these Kasyapa took in marriage eight elegant maidens, Aditi, Diti, Danu, Kalaka, Tamra, Krodhavasa, Manu and Anala. Kasyapa pleased, then to these maids, ' ye shall bring forth sons like to me, preserves of the three worlds '. Aditi, Diti, Danu and Kalaka assented; but the others did not agree. Thirty-three gods were born by Aditi, the Adityas, Vasus, Rudras, and the two Asvins. Manu (wife) of Kasyapa, produced men, Brahmans, Kshattriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. ' Brahmans were born from the mouth, Kshattriyas from the breast, Vaisyas from the thighs, and Sudras from the feet, ' so says the Veda. Anala gave birth to all trees with pure fruits. " The Mahabharata gives the following explanation [f.56] : " Born all with splendour, like that of great rishis, the ten sons of Prachetas are reputed to have been virtuous and holy; and by them the glorious beings were formerly burnt up by fire springing from their mouths. From them was born Daksha Prachetas, and from Daksha, the Parent of the world (were produced), these creatures. Cohabiting with Virini, the Muni Daksha begot a thousand sons like himself, famous for their religious observances, to whom Narada taught the doctrine of final liberation, the unequalled knowledge of the Sankhya. Desirous of creating offspring, the Prajapati Daksha next formed fifty daughters of whom he gave ten to Dharma, thirteen to Kasyapa, and twenty-seven, devoted to the regulation of time, to Indu (Soma)..... On Dakshayani, the most excellent of his thirteen wives, Kasyapa, the son of Marichi, begot the Adityas, headed by Indra and distinguished by their energy, and also Vivasvat. To Vivasvat was born a son, the mighty Yama Vaivasvata. To Martanda (i.e. Vivasvat, the sun) was born the wise and mighty Manu, and also the renowned Yama, his (Manu's) younger brother. Righteous was this wise Manu, on whom a race was founded. Hence this (family) of men became known as the race of Manu. Brahmans, Kshattriyas, and other men sprang from this Manu. From him o king, came the Brahman conjoined with the Kshatriya. "

In another place the Mahabharata gives the origin as it is given in the Purusha Sukta:

"The king should appoint to be his royal priest a man who will protect the good, and restrain the wicked. On this subject they relate this following ancient story of a conversation between Pururavas the son of I lla, and Matarisvan (Vayu, the Windgod). Pururavas said : You must explain to me whence the Brahman, and whence the ; (other) three castes were produced, and whence the superiority (of the first) arises. Matarisvan answered : the Brahman was created from Brahman's mouth, the Kshatriya from his arms, the Vaisya from his thighs, while for the purpose of serving these three castes was produced the fourth class, the Sudra, fashioned from his feet. The Brahman, as soon as born. becomes the lord of all beings upon the earth, for the purpose of protecting the treasure of righteousness. Then (the creator) constituted Kshatriya the controller of the earth, a second Yama to bear the rod, for the satisfaction of the people. And it was Brahma's ordinance that the Vaisya should sustain these three classes with money and grain, and that the Sudra should serve them. The son of Illa then enquired : Tell me, Vayu. to whom the earth, with its wealth, rightfully belongs, to the Brahman or the Kshatriyya ? Vayu replied : All this, whatever exists in the world, is the Brahman's property by right of primogeniture; this is known to those who are skilled in the laws of duty. It is his own which the Brahman eats, puts on. and bestows. He is the chief of all the castes, the first-born and the most excellent. Just as a woman when she has lost her (first) husband, takes her brother in law for a second: so the Brahman is the first resource in calamity; afterwards another may arise ". There is a third view maintained in the Shantiparva of Mahabharata [f.57] :—

"Bhrigu replied: 'Brahma thus formerly created the Prajapatis, Brahmanic, penetrated by his own energy, and in splendour equalling the sun and fire. The lord then formed truth, righteousness austere fervour, and the eternal veda (or sacred science), Virtuous practice, and purity for (the attainment of) heaven. He also formed the gods, Danavas, Gandharvas. Daityas, Asuras, Mahoragas, Yakshas, Rakshasas, Nagas, Pisachas, and men, Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, as well as all other classes (varnah) of beings. The colour (varna) of the Brahmans was white; that of the Kshatriyas red; that of the Vaishyas yellow: and that of the Sudra black." Bharadvaja here rejoins: 'If the caste (varna) of the four classes is distinguished by their colour (varna). then a confusion of all the castes is observable. Desire, anger, fear, cupidity, grief, apprehension, hunger, fatigue, prevail over us all, by what then, is caste discriminated? Sweat, urine, excrement, phlegm, bile and blood (are common to all) the bodies of all decay; by what then is caste discriminated ? There are innumerable kinds of things moving and stationary, how is the class (varna) of these various objects to be determined ? "

Bhrigu replies: There is no difference of castes: " In the same Shantiparva there is a fourth theory [f.58] :

" Bharadvaja again enquires: ' What is that in virtue of which a man is a Brahman, a Kshattriya, a Vaisya, or a Sudra; tell me, o, most eloquent Brahman rishi '. Bhrigu replies: ' He who is pure, consecrated by the natal and other ceremonies, who has completely studied the Veda, lives in the practice of the six ceremonies, performs perfectly the rites of purification, who eats the remains of oblations, is attached to his religious teacher, is constant in religious observances, and devoted to truth is called a Brahman. He in whom are seen truth, liberality, inoffensiveness, harmlessness, modesty compassion, and austere fervour,--is declared to be a Brahman. He who practises the duty arising out of the kingly office, who is addicted to the study of the Veda, and who delights in giving and receiving, is called a Kshattriya. He who readily occupies himself with cattle, who is devoted to agriculture, and acquisition,.who is pure, and is perfect in the study of the Veda,— is denominated a Vaisya. He who is habitually addicted to all kinds of food, performs all kinds of work, who is unclean, who has abandoned the Veda, and does not practise pure observances,-- is traditionally called a Sudra. And this (which I have stated) is the mark of a Sudra. and it is not found in a Brahman: (such) a Sudra will remain a Sudra, while the Brahman (who so acts) will be no Brahman".

Let us inquire what the Puranas have to say on the origin of the Varna System.

To ' begin with the Vishnu Purana. There are two theories propounded in the Vishnu Purana on the origin of the Chaturvarna.

According to one ascribes the origin to Manu [f.59] :

'' Before the mundane egg existed the divine Brahma Hiranyagarbha, the eternal originator of all worlds, who was the form of essence of Brahma, who consists of the divine Vishnu, who again is identical with Rik, Yajush, Saman and Atharva Vedas. From Brahma's right thumb was born the Prajapati Daksha; Daksha had a daughter Aditi; from her was born Vivasvat; and from him sprang Manu. Manu had sons called lkshvaku, Nriga, Dhrishta, Saryati, Narishanta, Puramsu, Nabhagandishta, Karusha, and Prishadhra. "

" From Karusha the Karushas, Kshattriyas of great power, were descended. "

"Nabhaga, the son of Nedishta, became a Vaisya". Of this explanation ascribing the origin to Manu there is another and a different version in the Vishnu Purana:

" Desirous of a son, Manu sacrificed to Mitra and Varuna; but in consequence of a wrong invocation through an irregularity of the hotri-priest, a daughter called Illa was born. Then through the favour of Mitra and Varuna she became to Manu a son called Sudyumna. But being again changed into a female through the wrath of Isvara (Mahadeva) she wandered near the hermitage of Budha the son of Soma (the Moon); who becoming enamoured of her had by her a son called Pururavas. After his birth, the god who is formed of sacrifice, of the Rik, Yajush, Saman, and Atharva-Vedas, of all things, of mind, of nothing, he who is in the form of the sacrificial Male, was worshipped by the rishis of infinite splendour who desired that Sudyumn should recover his manhood. Through the favour of this god Ila became again Sudhumna. "

"According to the Vishnu Purana, Atri was the son of Brahma, and the father of Soma (the moon), whom Brahma installed as the sovereign of plants, Brahmans and stars. After celebrating the rajasuya sacrifice, Soma became intoxicated with pride, and carried off Tara (Star) the wife of Brihaspati the preceptor of the gods, whom, although admonished and entreated by Brahma, the gods, and rishis, he refused to restore, Soma's part was taken by Usanas; and Rudra, who had studied under Angiras, aided Brihaspati. A fierce conflict ensued between the two sides, supported respectively by the gods and the Daityas, etc. Brahma interposed, and compelled Soma to restore Tara to her husband. She had, however, in the meantime become pregnant, and bore a son Budha (the planet Mercury), of whom, when strongly urged, she acknowledged Soma to be the father. Pururavas, as has been already mentioned, was the son of this Budha by Illa, the daughter of Manu. The loves of Pururavas and the Apsara Urvasi are related in the Satapatha Brahmana, xi. 5, I, I in the Vishnu Purana, iv. 6, 19 ff; in the Bhagavata Purana, ix, 14; and in the Harivamsa, section 26. The Mahabharata, Adip. sect. 75, alludes to Pururavas as having been engaged in a contest with the Brahmanas. This passage will be quoted hereafter. According to the Vishnu Purana, iv, 7, I, Pururavas had six sons, of whom the eldest was Ayus. Ayus had five sons: Nahusha, Kshatra-vriddha, Rambha, Raji, and Anenas. " "Kshattravriddha had a son Sunahotra, who had three sons, Kasa, Lesa, and Gritsamada. From the last sprang Saunaka, who progenited the system of four castes. Kasa had a son Kasiraja, of whom again Dirghatamas was the son as Dhanvantri was Dirghatamas. " The second ascribes the origin to Brahma as the following extract from the Vishnu Purana shows [f.60] :

" Maitreya [f.61] says: You have described to me the Arvaksrotas, or human creation; declare to me, o Brahman, in detail the manner in which Brahma formed it. Tell me how and with what qualities, he created the castes, and what are traditionally reputed to be the functions of the Brahmans and others. Parasara replies: 3. When, true to his design, Brahma became desirous to create the world, creatures in whom goodness (sattva) prevailed sprang from his mouth; 4. Others in whom passion (rajas) predominated came from his breast; others in whom both passion and darkness (tamas) were strong, proceeded from his thigh; (5) others he created from his feet, whose chief characteristic was darkness. Of these was composed the system of four castes, Brahmans, Kshatriyyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, who had respectively issued from his mouth, breast, thighs, and feet. 6. Brahma formed this entire fourfold institution of classes for the performance of sacrifices, the gods nourish mankind by discharging rain. Sacrifices, the causes of prosperity, (8) are constantly celebrated by virtuous men, devoted to their duties, who avoid wrong observances, and walk in the right path. 9. Men, in consequence of their humanity, obtain heaven and final liberation; and they proceed to the world which they desire". In the Harivamsa are to be found two theories. It upholds the theory of the origin of the Varnas as being born from one of the descendents of Manu as the stock of descent than the one mentioned by the Vishnu Purana [f.62] :

"The son of Gritsamada was Sunaka, from whom sprang the Saunakas, Brahmanas, Kshattriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. "

"Vitatha was the father of five sons, Suhotra, Suhotri, Gaya. Garga, and the great Kapila. Suhotra had two sons, the exalted Kasaka. and King Gritsamati. The sons of the latter were Brahmans, Kshattriyas, and Vaisyas. "

The other version speaks of their being formed by Vishnu who sprang from Brahma and had become Prajapati Daksha and is as follows [f.63] :

"Janmejaya [f.64]says: I have heard, o Brahman the (description of the) Brahma Yuga, the first of the ages. I desire also to be accurately informed both summarily, and in detail, about the age of the Kshattriyas, with its numerous observances, illustrated as it was by sacrifice, and described, as it has been by men skilled in the art of narration. Vaisamapayana replied: I shall describe to you that age revered for its sacrifices and distinguished for its various works of liberality, as well as for its people. Those Munis of the size of a thumb had been absorbed by the Sun's rays. Following a rule of life leading to final emancipation, practising unobstructed cremonies. both in action and in abstinence from action constantly intent upon Brahma, united to Brahman as the highest object, Brahmans glorious and sanctified in their conduct, leading a life of continence, disciplined by the knowledge of Brahman, Brahmans complete in their observances, perfect in knowledge, and contemplative, when at the end of a thousand yugas, their majesty was full, these Munis became involved in the dissolution of the world. Then Vishnu sprung from Brahma, removed beyond the sphere of sense, absorbed in contemplation, became the Prajapati Daksha, and formed numerous creatures. The Brahmans, beautiful (or, dear to Soma), were formed from an imperishable (akshara): the Kshattriyas from a perishable (kshara), element: the Vaisyas from alteration: the Sudras from a modification of smoke. While Vishnu was thinking upon the castes (varna) Brahmans were formed with white, red, yellow, and blue colours (varanaih). Hence in the world men have become divided into castes, being of four descriptions, Brahmans. Kshattriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, one in form, distinct in their duties, "two-footed, very wonderful, full of energy(?), skilled in expedients in all their occupations. Rites are declared to be prescribed by the Vedas for the three (highest) castes. By that contemplation practised by the being sprung from Brahma— by that practised in his character as Vishnu—, the Lord Prachetasa (Daksha), i.e. Vishnu the great contemplator (yogin), passed through his wisdom and energy from that state of meditation into the sphere of works. Next the Sudras, produced from extinction, are destitute of rites. Hence they are not entitled to be admitted to the purificatory ceremonies, nor does sacred science belong to them. Just as the cloud of smoke which rises from the fire on the friction of the fuel, and is dissipated, is of no service in the sacrificial rite, so too the Sudras wandering over the earth, are altogether (useless for purposes of sacrifice) owing to their birth, their mode of life devoid of purity and their want of the observances prescribed in the Veda." Lastly the Bhagwat Purana1:

" At the end of many thousand years the living soul which resides in time, action, and natural quality gave life to that lifeless egg floating on the water. Purusha then having burst the egg, issued from it was a thousand thighs, feet, arms, eyes, faces and heads. With his members the sages fashion the worlds, the seven lower worlds with his loins etc., and the seven upper worlds with his groin, etc. The Brahman (was) the mouth of Purusha, the Kshattriya his arms, the Vaishya was born from the thighs, the Sudra from the feet of the divine being. The earth was formed from his feet, the air from his navel; the heaven by the heart, and the mahaloka by the breast of the mighty one ". The Vayu Purana takes up the theory of Manu but says:

"The son of Gritsamada was Sunaka, from whom sprang Saunaka. In his family were born Brahamanas, Kshattriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, twice-born men with various functions ".

What does this survey show ? If it shows anything it show's what a chaotic state has been created by the Brahmans in trying to explain the origin of the Varna system. There is no uniformity or consistency in the explanations they have offered. One and the same authority gives a variety of explanations. One and the same authority gives explanations some of which are mythical, some of which are mystical and rationalistic all intended to serve the same purpose namely to explain the origin of the Varna system.

The Vedas attempt to explain the Varnas as having arisen from Purusha, from Manu, from Prajapati, from Vratya and from Soma.

The Brahmanas show a marked divergence from the Vedas. They do not acknowledge Purusha, Manu, Vratya or Soma as the originators of the four varnas. They vacilliate between Prajapati and Brahma [f.65] which is a new importation. The Taitteriya Brahmana sports with an altogether new theory. It speaks of Brahmins born of Gods and Sudras from Asuras.

The Manu Smriti offers two explanation mythological and rational. •The mythological explanations ascribes the origin to Brahma and the rational ascribes it to the constitutional make up of the individual. The Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas seem to be in support of the theory of Manu as the progenitor of the four Vamas. In the handling of the theme of Manu they have made a complete mess of him. In the Ramayana this Manu is a female a daughter of Daksha and wife of Kasyappa. In the Mahabharata Manu is a male and not a female. He is the son of Vivasvat who is the son of Kasyappa. In the Mahabharata the wife of Kasyappa is not Manu but is Dakshayani who is also said to be the daughter of Daksha. The Puranas while expounding the theory of Manu as the originator of the four vamas have introduced into it many divergent elements. The Vishnu Purana instead of ascribing the origin to Manu proceeds to ascribe it to his sons. But in hurry explains the origin of the two Vamas only, namely, Brahmins and Sudras from two of Manu's eight sons and forgets to give an explanation of the two other vamas. In another place the same Vishnu Purana expounds another theory by which origin of the four Vamas through Manu in the female line of his daughter Ila. According to the second theory lla married Pururavas who had six sons the eldest of whom was Ayus. From Ayus to Kshatravidha, from him Sunahotra, from him Gritsamada. The four vamas were originated from Gritsamada. The Vayu Purana does not admit this. It says that the four vamas were born from Saunaka the grandson of Gritsamada. The Harivamsa in one place agrees with the Vishnu Purana that the progenitor was Gritsamada with this difference that the Sudras did not spring but from whom gives no explanation. In another place it says that the four vamas sprang from Sunaka the son of Gritsamada thus differing from itself, from the Vishnu Purana and from the Vayu Purana.

These explanations are like effusions of the imbeciles. They show how hard the Brahmins were put to for the defence of the Varna system. The question is why were the Brahmins not able to give a consistent and uniform unimpeachable, convincing and rational explanation of the Varna system of which they have been such strong protagonists ?

Of these numerous explanations there are two on which the Varna system is defended by the Brahmins of today.

The first is the origin of the four Varnas from Purusha the theory that is propounded in the Purusha Sukta of the Rig-Veda. It is not a historical explanation. It would be something if it were mythological for mythology is history even if it is history in hyperbole. But it is not. The explanation is purely mystic. It is a fantastic dream of a troubled mind. That is why it was never regarded as the explanation and that is why there were so many other rival explanations. That it was treated with scant courtesy even by the Vedic writers is obvious from two circumstances. In the first place it occurs in the miscellaneous portion of the Rig-Veda. In the second place it does not occur in the Kathak and Maitreyani Sanhita of the White Yajur-Veda and the Taitteriya Sanhitas of the Black Yajur-Veda do not adopt it. The Sam-Veda incorporates only 5 Mantras of the Purusha Sukta from the Rig-Veda and what is important is that in adopting these five Mantras omit those which speak of the four Varnas springing from the four parts of the body of the Purusha. It is of course a very late composition and has been interpolated after all the four Vedas had taken their present shape. But apart from that it has all the marks showing its authors were not very sure of their explanation carrying conviction. It is probably an allegory, figurative narration which the Brahmins attempted to convert into a literal statement of hard fact. It does not solve the riddle. On the contrary it creates a riddle— which is, why were the Brahmins interested in supporting the theory of Chaturvarna.

The rational explanation has behind it the authority of the Bhagwat Geeta. Krishna, the God of the Hindus, explains that he created the system of Chaturvarna and propounds the theory that it is a system of difference of Guna: innate virtue. This theory of difference of Guna is derived from the Sankhya Philosophy of Kapila. Krishna offers this explanation of Chaturvarna in a commanding spirit as though it was incontrovertible. The Sankhya Philosophy no doubt asserts as a fundamental proposition that matter has got three Gunas-Raj, Tama and Satva. Matter is not inert. It is instable equillibrium when all the three Gunas are coequal in their power. Matter becomes dynamic when the equillibrium is disturbed when one Guna becomes masterful over others. Krishna was of course very clever in seeking to give scientific explanation of the Varna system by applying the Sankhya Theory of Guna dharma. But in doing so Krishna has really made a fool of himself. He did not realize that there are four Varnas and three Gunas and whatever ingenuity he might claim to have he could not account for the four Varnas with a theory which did not require more than three Gunas. Here again what appears to be a rational explanation is an absurd explanation. It does not solve the riddle. It creates one. Why were the Brahmins fighting so hard to justify the Chaturvarna ?

The Ashram Dharma divides the life of an individual into four stages (1) Brahmcharya, (2) Grahasthashram, (3) Vanaprastha and (4) Sannyas. The state of Brahmacharya has both a de jure and de facto connotation. Its de facto connotation is that it means an unmarried state of life. Its de jure connotation means the stage ol study under a teacher. Grahasthashram is the stage of a householder a stage of married family life. The stage of Sannyas is a stage ol renunciation of civic rights and responsibilities. It is a stage of civic death. The stage of Vanaprastha is in between Grahasthashram and Sannyas. It is a stage in which one belongs to society but is bound to live away from society. As the name implies it prescribes dwelling in forest.

The Hindus believe that this institution of Ashram Dharma is as old as that of the Varna Dharma. They call the two by a joint name of Varnashram Dharma as though they were one and integral, and the two together form the steelframe of the Hindu Society.

To begin with it would be better to have a full understanding of the Ashram Dharma before inquiring into its origin and its purpose and its peculiarities. The best source for an exposition of the Ashram system is the Manu Smriti from which the following relevant extracts are reproduced:

Ch. 11-36. In the eighth year after conception, one should perform the initiation (upanayana) of a Brahmana, in the eleventh after conception (that) of a Kshatriya,but in the twelfth that of a Vaisya.

Ch. 11-168. A twice-born man who, not having studied the Veda, applies himself to other (and wordly study), soon falls, even while living, to the condition of a Sudra and his descendants (after him).

Ch. Ill-1. The vow of the three Vedas under a teacher must be kept for thirty-six years or for half that time, or for a quarter, or until the (student) has perfectly learnt them.

Ch. Ill-2. Who has studied in due order the three Vedas, or two, or even one only, without breaking the (rule of) studentship, shall enter the order of householder.

Ch. Vl-8. The student, the householder, the hermit, and the ascetic, these (constitute) tour separate orders, which ail spring from (the order of) householders.

Ch. VI-88. But all (or) even (any of) these orders, assumed successively in accordance with the Institutes (of the sacred law). lead the Brahmana who acts by the preceding (rules) to the highest state.

Ch. Vl-89. And in accordance with the precepts of the Veda and of the Smriti. the housekeeper is declared to be superior to all of them, for he supports the other three.

Ch. VI-1. A twice-born Snataka, who has thus lived according to the law in the order of householders, may, taking a firm resolution and keeping his organs in subjection, dwell in the forest, duly (observing the rules given below).

Ch. Vl-2. When a householder sees his (skin) wrinkled and (his hair) white, and the sons of his sons, then he may resort to the forest.

Ch. Vl-33. But having thus passed the third part of (a man's natural term of) life in the forest, he may live as an ascetic during the fourth part of his existence, after abandoning all attachment to worldly objects.

Ch. Vl-34. He who after passing from order to order, after offering sacrifices and subduing his senses, becomes, tired with giving alms and offerings of food, an ascetic, gains bliss after death.

Ch. Vl-35. When he has paid the three debts, let him apply his mind to (the attainment of) final liberation; he who seeks it without having paid (his debts) sinks downwards.

Ch. Vl-36. Having studied the Vedas in accordance with the rule, having begot sons according to the sacred law, and having offered sacrifices according to his ability, he may direct his mind to (the attainment of) final liberation.

Ch. Vl-37. A twice-born man who seeks final liberation, without having studied the Vedas, without having begotten sons and without having offered sacrifices, sinks downwards. " For these rules it is clear that according to Manu there are three features of the Ashram Dharma. First is that it is not open to Shudras and Women. The second is Brahmacharya which is compulsory, so is Grahasthashram. Vanaprastha and Sannyas are not compulsory. The third is that one must pass from one stage to another in the order in which they stand namely first Brahmacharya, then Grahasthashram, then Vanaprastha and lastly Sannyas. No one can omit one and enter the next stage.

Judging what Manu says in the light of history there are several questions which arise. Referring to the Vedas the theory of stages in life is quite unknown. The Vedas speak of Brahmachari. But there is nothing to show that Brahmarcharya was regarded as an inescapable stage in life. There is reference to ' Yatis ' in the Rig-Veda. That again was not regarded as a stage in life. Indeed unlike the Sannyasi the Yati in the Rig-Vedic times is a hated institution. In fact there are many hymns in the Rig-Veda where Indra is spoken of as having thrown the Yatis to the wolves. Why did the Brahmins formulate this theory of the four Ashramas? This is the first riddle about the Asbram Dharma.

The second riddle relates to the order of sequence among the four Ashramas. Now there is no doubt that there was a time when it was open to a Brahmachari to enter any of the three Ashrams. He may become a Grahasthashrami or he may at once become a Sannyasi without becoming a Grahasthashrami. Compare what the authors of the Dharma Sutras have to say on the point. Vashishta Dharma Sutra says [f.66]:

"There are four orders,viz. (that of) the student, (that of ) the householder, (that of) the hermit, and (that of) the ascetic. "

"A man who has studied one, two, or three Vedas without violating the rules of studentship, may enter any of these (orders), whichsoever he pleases. " Gautama Dharma Sutra says [f.67] : .

"Some (declare, that) he (who has studied the Veda) may make his choice (which) among the orders (he is going to enter). "

"(The four orders are, that of) the student (that of) the householder, (that of) the ascetic (Bhikshu), (and that of) the hermit in the woods (vaikhanasa).

Why did Manu remove the option and make the married state an obligatory state, why did he make the married state a condition precedent to the stage of hermit and the stage of hermit a condition precedent to the stage of a Sannyasi?

If the four stages of life have been devised to serve some important end it is difficult to understand why the two classes Shudras and women were excluded? The Shudras and women can only be householders according to the scheme of Manu. Why can they not be Brahmachari, Vanaprasthi or Sannyasi? What harm can there be either to them or to society if the Ashram Dharma was open to them ? There are other riddles about the system of Ashram Dharma.

First relates to the distinctions which Manu makes among the Brahmacharis.'

Ch. 11-41.. Let students according to the order (of their castes.)., wear (as upper dresses) the skins of black antelopes, spotted deer, and he-goats, and (lower garments) made of a hemp, flax or wool. [f.68] '

Ch. 11-42. The girdle of a Brahmana shall consist of a triple cord of Munga grass, smooth and soft; (that) of a Kshatriya, of a bowstring, made of Murva fibresg; (that) of a Vaisya, of hempen threads.

Ch. 11-43. If Munga grass (and so forth) be not procurable, (the girdles) may be made of Kusa, Asmantaka, and Balbaga (fibres), with a single threefold knot, or with three or five (knots according to the custom of the family).

Ch. 11-44. The sacrificial string of a Brahmana shall be made of cotton, (shall be) twisted to the right, (and consist) of three threads, that of a Kshatriya of hempen threads, (and) that of a Vaisya of woolen threads.

Ch. 11-45. A Brahmana shall (carry), according to the sacred law, a staff of Bilva or Palasa a Kshatriya, or Vata or Khadira; (and) a Vaisya, of Pilu or Udumbara.

Ch. 11-46. The staff of a Brahmana shall be made of such length as to reach the end of his hair: that of a Kshatriya, to reach his forehead: (and) that of a Vaisya, to reach (the tip of his) nose.

Ch. 11-47. Let all the staves be straight, without a blemish, handsome to look at, not likely to terrify men, with their bark perfect, unhurt by fire.

Ch. 11-48. Having taken a staff according to his choice, having worshipped the sun and walked round the fire, turning his right hand towards it, (the student) should beg alms according to the prescribed rule.

Ch. 11-49. An initiated Brahmana should beg, beginning (his request with the word) lady (bhavati); a Kshatriya, placing (the word) Lady in the middle, but a Vaisya placing it at the end (of the formula). The Brahmacharis all belong to the same class, namely they are twiceborn. Why should it be necessary to make a distinction in the material of their upper garment ? Why should it be necessary to make a distinction in the material of their sacred thread ? Why should it be necessary to make a distinction in their staffs? Why should it be necessary to make a distinction in the syntax of the formula for begging alms ? Why should a Brahman Brahmachari say " Bhagvati Bhikshyam Dehi"?Why should a Kshatriya Brahmachari say "Bhikshyam Bhavati Dehi"? Why should a Vaishya Brahmachari say "Bhikshyam dehi bhavati "?

The Ashram Dharma is a peculiar institution of the Hindus and they are very proud of it. It is true that it has no parallel anywhere. But it is equally true that it is without any merit. Compulsory Brahmacharya appears very attractive since it has the look of compulsory education for children. It was certainly not universal. Shudras and women were excluded from it. Having regard to the fact that the Shudras and women form nearly 9/ 10ths of the Hindu Society it is obvious that the scheme was the result of cunningness rather than wisdom. It certainly was tainted by discrimination against the masses. It was scheme for the education of the governing classes. Compulsory marriage to say the least is a most stupid rule that can be imagined. To compel every one to marry irrespective of money or health is to open the road to ruination both for the individual and the nation unless it is accompanied by a scheme whereby the state undertakes to guarantee subsistence to everybody. The most non-sensical stages are those of Vanaprastha and the Sannyasi. Let me quote the rules regarding these two. The following is the code prescribed by Manu for the Vanaprastha [f.69] :

Ch. Vl-3. Abandoning all food raised by cultivation, and all his belongings, he may depart into the forest, either committing his wife to his sons, or accompanied by her.

Ch. Vl-4. Taking with him the sacred fire and the implements required for domestic (sacrifices) he may go forth from the village into the forest and reside there, duly controlling his senses.

Ch. Vl-5. Let him offer those five great sacrifices according to the rule, with various kinds of pure food fit for ascetics, or with herbs, roots and fruit.

Ch. Vl-6. Let him wear a skin or a tattered garment: let him bathe in the evening or in the morning and let him always were (his hair in ) braids, the hair on his body, his beard, and his nails (being unclipped).

Ch. Vl-7. Let him perform the Bali-offering with such food as he eats, and give alms according to his ability: let him honour those who come to his hermitage with alms consisting of water roots and fruit.

Ch. Vl-8. Let him be always industrious in privately reciting the Veda: let him be patient of hardships, friendly (towards all), of collected mind, ever liberal and never a receiver of gifts, and compassionate towards all living creatures.

Ch. Vl-9. Let him offer, according to the law, the Agni-hotra with three sacred fires, never omitting the new-moon and full-moon sacrifices at the proper time.

Ch. VI-10. Let him also offer the Nakshatreshti, the Agrayana, and theKaturmasya (sacrifices), as well as the Turayana and likewise the Dakshayana, in due order.

Ch. Vl-11. With pure grains, fit for ascetics, which grow in spring and in autumn, and which he himself has collected, let him severally prepare the sacrificial cakes (purodasa) and the boiled messes (karu), as the law directs.

Ch. Vl-12. Having offered those most pure sacrificial viands, consisting of the produce of the forest, he may use the remainder for himself, (mixed with) salt prepared by himself.

Ch. VI-13. Let him eat vegetables that grow on dry land or in water, flowers, roots and fruits, the productions of pure trees, and oils extracted from forest fruits.

Ch. Vl-14. Let him avoid honey, flesh and mushrooms growing on the ground (for elsewhere, the vegetables called) Bhustrina, and Sigruka, and the Sleshmantaka fruit.

Ch. VI-15. Let him throw away in the month of Asvina the food of ascetics, which he formerly collected, likewise his worn-out clothes and his vegetables, roots, and fruits.

Ch. Vl-16. Let him not eat anything (grown on) ploughed (land), though it may have been thrown away by somebody, nor roots and fruit grown in a village, though (he may be) tormented (by hunger).

Ch. Vl-17. He may eat either what has been cooked with fire, or what has been ripened by time; he either may use a stone for grinding, or his teeth may be his mortar.

Ch. VI-18. He may either at once (after his daily meal) cleanse (his vessel for collecting food), or lay up a store sufficient for a month, or gather what suffices for six months or for a year.

Ch. VI-19. Having collected food according to his ability he may either eat at night (only) or in the day-time (only), or at every fourth meal-time, or at every eighth.

Ch. Vl-20. Or he may live according to the rule of the lunar penance (Kandrayana, daily diminishing the quantity of his food) in the bright (half of the month) and (increasing it) in the dark (half); or he may eat on the last days of each fortnight, once (a day only), boiled barley-gruel.

Ch. Vl-21. Or he may constantly subsist on flowers, roots, and fruit alone, which have been ripened by time and have fallen spontaneously, following the rule of the (Institutes) of Vikhanas. Ch. Vl-22. Let him either roll about on the ground, or stand during the day on tiptoe, (or) let him alternately stand and sit down; going at the Savanas (at sunrise, at midday, and at sunset) to water in the forest (in order to bathe).

Ch. Vl-23. In summer let him expose himself to the heat of five fires, during the rainy season live under the open sky, and in winter be dressed in wet clothes, (thus) gradually increasing (the rigour of) his austerities. ,

Ch. Vl-24. When he bathes at the three Savanas (sunrise, midday, and sunset), let him offer libations of water to the manes and the gods and practising harsher and harsher austerities, let him dry up his bodily frame.

Ch. Vl-25. Having reposited the three sacred fires in himself, according to the prescribed rule, let him live without a Fire, without a house, wholly silent, subsisting on roots and fruit.

Ch. Vl-26. Making no effort (to procure) things that give pleasure, chaste, sleeping on the bare ground, not caring for any shelter, dwelling at the roots of trees.

Ch. V 1-27. From Brahmanas (who live as) ascetics let him receive alms, (barely sufficient) to support life, or from other householders of the twiceborn (castes) who reside in the forest.

Ch: Vl-28. Or (the hermit who dwells in the forest may bring food) from a village, receiving it either in a hollow dish (of leaves), in (his naked) hand, or in a broken earthen dish, and may eat eight mouthfuls.

Ch. Vl-29. These and other observances must a Brahmana who dwells in the forest diligently practise, and in order to attain complete (union with) the (supreme) soul, (he must study) the various sacred texts contained in the Upanishadas. The rules for a Sannyasi prescribed in the ManuSmriti are as follows [f.70] :

Ch. V 1-38. Having performed the Ishti, sacred to the Lord of creatures (prajapati) where (he gives) all his property as the sacrificial fee, having reposited the sacred fires in himself, a Brahmana may depart from his house (as an ascetic).

Ch. V 1-39. Worlds, radiant in brilliancy, become (the portion) of him who recites (the texts regarding) Brahman and departs from his house (as an ascetic), after giving a promise of safety to all created beings.

Ch. VI-40. For that twice-born man, by whom not the smallest danger even is caused to created beings, there will be no danger from any (quarter) after he is freed from his body.

Ch. V 1-41. Departing from his house fully provided with the means of purification (Pavitra), let him wander about absolutely silent, and caring nothing for enjoyments that may be offered (to him).

Ch. Vl-42. Let himalways wander alone,without any companion, in order to attain (final liberation), fully understanding that the solitary (man, who) neither forsakes nor is forsaken, gains his end [f.71] .

Ch. Vl-43. He shall neither possess a fire, nor a dwelling, he may go to a village for his food, (he shall be) indiffetent to everything, firm of purpose, meditating (and) concentrating his mind on Brahman.

Ch.VI-44. A potsherd (instead of an alms-bowl), the roots of trees (for a dwelling), coarse worn-out garments, life in solitude and indifference towards, everything, are the marks of one who has attained liberation.

Ch. Vl-45. Let him not desire to die, let him not desire to live, let him wait for (his appointed) time, as a servant (waits) for the payment of his wages.

Ch. Vl-49. Delighting in what refers to the Soul, sitting (in the postures prescribed by the Yoga), independent (of external help) entirely abstaining from sensual enjoyments, with himself for his only companion, he shall live in this world, desiring the bliss (of final liberation).

Ch. Vl-50. Neither by (explaining) prodigies and omens, nor by skill in astrology and palmistry, nor by giving advice and by the exposition (of the Sastras), let him ever seek to obtain alms.

Ch. VI-51.Let him not (in order to beg) go near a house filled with hermits, Brahmanas, birds, dogs, or other mendicants.

Ch. Vl-52. His hair, nails, and beards being clipped, carrying an alms bowl, a staff, and a water-pot let him continually wander about controlling himself and not hurting any creature.

Ch. Vl-53. His vessels shall not be made of metal, they shall be free from fractures, it is ordained that they shall be cleansed with water, like (the cups, called) Kamasa, at a sacrifice.

Ch. Vl-54. A gourd, a wooden blowl, an earthen (dish), or one made of split cane, Manu, the son of Svayambhu, has declared (to be) vessels (suitable) for an ascetic.

Ch. VI-55. Let him go to beg once (a day), let him not be eager to obtain a large quantity (of alms); for an ascetic who eagerly seeks. alms, attaches himself also to sensual enjoyments.

Ch. Vl-56. When no smoke ascends from (the kitchen), when the pestle lies motionless, when the embers have been extinguished, when the people have finished their meal, when the remnants in the dishes have been removed, let the ascetic always go to beg.

Ch. Vl-57. Let him not be sorry when he obtains nothing, nor rejoice when he obtains (something), let him (accept) so much only as will sustain life, let him not care about the (quality of his) utensils. Ch. Vl-58. Let him disdain all (food) obtained in consequnce of humble salutations, (for) even an ascetic who has attained final liberation, is bound (with the fetters of the Samsara) by accepting (food given) in consequence of humble salutations.

Ch. VI-59.Byeatinglittle,and by standing and sitting in solitude, let him restrain his senses, if they are attracted by sensual objects.

Ch.VI-60. By the restraint of his senses, by the destruction of love and hatred, and by the abstention from injuring the creatures, he becomes fit for immortality.

Ch. VI-80. [f.72] When by the disposition (of his heart) he becomes indifferent to all objects, he obtains eternal happiness both in this world and after death.

Ch. VI-81. He who has in this manner gradually given up all attachments and is freed from all the pairs (of opposites), reposes in Brahman alone.

Ch.VI-82.All that has been declared (above) depends on meditation: for he who is not proficient in the knowledge of that which refers to the Soul reaps not the full reward of the performance of rites.

Ch. VI-83. Let him constantly recite (those texts of) the Veda which refer to the sacrifice (those) referring to the deities, and (those) which treat of the Soul and are contained in the concluding portions of the Veda (Vedanta).

Ch. Vl-84. That is the refuge of the ignorant, and even that (the refuge) of those who know (the meaning of the Veda): that is (the protection) of those who seek (bliss in) heaven and of those who seek. endless (beatitude).

Ch. Vl-85. A twice-born man who becomes an ascetic, after the successive performance of the above-mentioned acts, shakes off sin here below and reaches the highest Brahman.

Comparing the Vanaprastha with the Sannyasi the resemblance in this observances is so close that one is led to ask why these two stages are created as separate stages. There appear to be only a few differences. Firstly a Vanaprastha may take his wife with him and a Sannyasi cannot. Secondly a Vanaprastha is required only to leave his property behind, and a Sannyasi has to divest himself of it. Thirdly a Vanaprastha must make his dwelling in a forest and a Sannyasi cannot have a Fixed dwelling but keep on wandering from place to place. As for the rest their mode of life is identical. Why did the Brahmins recognize an additional stage such as that of a Vanaprastha when the stage of Sannyas would have sufficed for both. But the question remains—namely what good these two stages serve. They cannot becited as examples of self sacrifice. The Vansprastha and Sannyasi cannot but be old men. Manu is very positive as to the period when a Man can become Vanaprastha,The time ripe for it is after wrinkles which is of course quite anadvanced age. The Sannyasi must be still more advanced in age. To exhibit such people who have enjoyed all the pleasures of life as instances of self-sacrifice because they choose to give up their pleasures at a stage of life when they are incapable of enjoying them must be nothing short of folly. Admittedly this abandonment of home. and family is not for the purpose of rendering social service to suffering humanity. The purpose is to enable them to perform austerities and to wait peaceful death. It seems to be a height of folly to cut of old and aged men from him and family and die in jungles uncared and unwept for so insignificant and trivial a purpose.

The Ashram system is an ancient attempt of planned economy produced by the Brahmins. It is so stupid that it is a riddle to understand the causes and the motives which have led the Brahmins to devise it.

APPENDIX II