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Table 4.7
Vehicle design implications for heavy vehicle road safety

Authors	Type	Availability	Research	Findings
Houser, Pierowicz, & Fuglewicz (2005)	FMCSA report	Public	A report to provide a better understanding of the function of on-board safety systems and provide insight into the safety and efficiency benefits of using such systems.	Describes the concept of operations and the voluntary requirements for the use of VSS for large trucks greater than 10,000 pounds GVWR.
Berg, Niewohner, Burkle, & Morschheuser (2001)	Journal article	Public	An investigation of 109 real life truck crashes and a crash test involving a Mercedes-Benz Actros.	Safety belts in heavy trucks have a potential to save drivers and passengers. Ejected truck occupants have the greatest probability of being killed in a crash.
Trevorrow & Eady (2010)	Austroads report	Public	A report to improve knowledge and understanding of heavy vehicle brake safety on long steep and very steep roads. Entailed a literature review, review of crash data, and a vehicle test.	Advanced braking systems offer increased safety in an emergency on steep roads due to the automatic application of the service brakes preventing roll-over or run-off-road crashes. While brake failure crashes accounted for less than one quarter of fatal truck crashes, brake failure crashes were found to be more serious. Fatal brake failure crashes were more likely on horizontal curves, however brake failure crashes on a combination of horizontal curve and vertical grade were more serious than those occurring on vertical grade alone. The main safety issue highlighted was the drivers’ interaction with the auxiliary braking system. Inadequate owners manual information and a lack of real-time driver feedback regarding the performance (or lack thereof) of brakes were identified as important issues.
Lambert & Rechnitzer (2002)	MUARC report	Public	A review and report of the issue of rear and side underrun crashes.	Two major effects of underrun on the outcomes of crashes were identified: underrun can expose light vehicle occupants to the rigid structures of the truck before the safety features of the light vehicle come into effect; and damage to heavy vehicle components (e.g., steering, braking, etc.) can reduce the controllability of the truck during or after the crash. There is little evidence suggesting that improvements in truck underrun protection cannot be achieved. There is some evidence that enforcement of underrun requirements and standards is lacking. Performance of front barriers must have a significantly higher standard, at least twice that of rear underrun barriers. The requirements of barriers should extend to vehicles of 3.0 tonnes GVM. The desired characteristics of front and rear underrun barriers are also identified.
Hart (2010)	Conference paper	Public	Describes the development of the Australian brake balance code of practice to guide the intermixing of brake technologies on heavy vehicle combination vehicles.	A wide range of braking technologies can now be intermixed on combination vehicles, e.g., advanced electronic controls are being connected to basic vehicles. The recommended performance level set out by the code is that a combination vehicle be able to achieve an instantaneous deceleration level on a sealed 60km/h road of half the theoretical level without exhibiting gross wheel lock-up.
Johansson (2010)	Conference paper	Public	Paper outlining areas for improvements in heavy vehicle brake testing.	Heavy vehicle brake testing methods need to be improved to make testing more consistent and improve assessment of the technical condition of brakes. Key industry stakeholders (suppliers, garages, testing authorities, and companies) need to cooperate and adapt measures to improve brake testing. Legal rules and requirements should prioritise checks on systems that are important for road safety and where an associated cost-benefit can be demonstrated.
Miller & Cebon (2010)	Conference paper	Public	A study of the effectiveness of a sliding mode braking force observer to support a sliding mode controller for air-braked heavy vehicles. Involved computer simulations and vehicle testing.	The observer was found to operate robustly and provide reasonable estimates of surface friction. The estimator converged within 0.3 seconds in simulators and vehicle trials.
Parker & Sinnett (2010)	Conference paper	Public	Outlines the development and benefits of a pintle connection with the addition of a roll-coupling.	Research has shown the performance of truck/trailer configurations in terms of dynamic stability could be improved with the addition of a roll-coupling. Summarizes the results of torsion strength tests and stability tests of two prototype trailer hitches.
de Pont, Baas, Currie, & Hidvegi (2006)	Conference paper	Public	An investigation of the impact on performance of mixing heavy vehicle brake systems. Rigid truck and full trailer combination was modified so brakes would work in EBS or NZHVBC modes.	The best stopping distance performance was achieved by the NZHVBC brake system, however the EBS system allowed drivers to use full brake application with confidence under conditions where this was not possible with NZHVBC.
de Pont, Hutchinson, & Kalasih (2004)	Conference paper	Public	Outlines the implementation of the minimum roll stability requirement introduced in New Zealand in 2002.	Describes the phase-in time, certification requirements and procedures, documentation, and enforcement of the requirements. Outlines problem areas during implementation and how these were resolved. A preliminary assessment of the success of the stability requirement in reducing heavy vehicle roll over rate was also undertaken.
Li & McLean (2003)	Conference paper	Public	Presents findings on simulations of the behaviour of capillary and orifice controlled heavy vehicle air suspensions.	Current air suspension designs with capillary transmission lines are not road friendly and are also dangerous when their dynamic behaviour is taken into account.
Goldman, El-Gindy, & Kulakowski (2001)	Journal article	Public	A literature review regarding vehicle rollover with a focus on manoeuvre-induced rollovers.	Discusses issues of stability, rigid and liquid cargo, suspension, braking control, and warning devices.
Liu, Rakheja, & Ahmed (2001)	Journal article	Public	A study of the dynamic rollover limits of a straight truck under different evasive manoeuvres using roll plane models of heavy vehicles.	The dynamic rollover limit of a vehicle is manoeuvre dependent. Rollover limits at high steering frequencies are considerably larger than the static rollover threshold of the vehicle.
Gillespi, Karamihas, & Spurr (1998)	Conference paper	Public	An experimental study using computer modelling to examine the relative influence of various design factors in the directional behaviour of trucks during braking.	Asymmetry in the steering system of trucks with I-beam front axles was observed to cause deviation to the right in straight ahead and open-loop tests, even with symmetric loading & brake force. Lateral offset in load altered the directional behaviour; load bias to the left causes greater deviation to the right & vice versa.
Guzman & Navarrete (1998)	Conference paper	Public	A computer modelled analysis of heavy vehicle stability performance under overloaded conditions.	Overloading a rigid three axle vehicle has noticeable affects on brake time response, produces higher offtracking values and lowers the rollover threshold and manoeuvrability of the vehicle.
Simon & Botto (2001)	Conference paper	Public	An attempt to quantify the potential benefits achieved by the generalisation of 3 point seat belts to 100% of the European truck fleet. Analysis is based on 403 crashes involving 479 unbelted occupants.	The use of seat belts with 3 anchoring points in trucks that are also fitted with airbags would effectively prevent 37% of fatalities, 36% of serious injuries, and 22% of slightly injured truck occupants.
Morgan (2001)	NHTSA technical report	Public	Evaluates the effectiveness of retroreflective tape in enhancing the visibility of heavy trailers and reducing side and rear impacts under dark conditions.	The tape is quite effective, reducing side and rear impacts into trailers under dark conditions by 29%. In dark conditions retroreflective tape reduced side and rear impact crashes resulting in fatality by 44%. In dark-not lighted conditions the tape reduced side and rear impact crashes by 41%.
Charlton (2007)	Journal article	Public	Two groups of curve treatments were tested using a driving simulator to examine the roles of attentional, perceptual, and lane placement factors in driver behaviour at curves.	Advance warning signs alone were not as effective at reducing speed as when they were used in conjunction with chevron sight boards and/or repeater arrows. Of road marking treatments only rumble strips produced any reduction in speed. Herringbones road marking produced significant improvements in drivers’ lane positioning for negotiating the curve. Treatments combining herringbones marking with chevron and repeater arrow signs improved lane positioning and produced a reliable reduction in speed. Treatments highlighting perceptual cues are the most effective means of moderating drivers’ curve speeds.
Preece (2002)	Conference paper	Public	A review of seat belt use amongst drivers of heavy trucks, focussing on the attitudes towards, and prevalence of seat belt use.	The objections to seat belt use raised by interviewed truck drivers were incorrect or easily overcome. Many of these were similar to objections amongst the passenger vehicle fleet prior to the introduction of compulsory seat belt use. It has been estimated that seat belts have the potential to decrease fatalities amongst truck occupants by 40-50%; in New South Wales alone, the increased use of seat belts amongst truck occupants could save up to 10 lives per year.
Seyer & Jonas (2002)	Conference paper	Public	Discusses the possible integration of underrun protection and integrated lap/sash seat belts in heavy vehicles.	Any measures, such as underrun protection, that exploit the crashworthiness of modern passenger vehicles are worth consideration. Fully integrated lap/sash seat belts may be a possible strategy to encourage heavy vehicle occupants to wear seat belts.
Hart (2010)	Conference paper	Public	Estimates the forces that can occur in a heavy vehicle truck crash where one truck impacts the rear of another. Two 64.5 tonne B-double trucks are used.	Crash decelerations of up to 1lg can occur at relatively low collision speeds due to the high masses combined with stiff front and rear underrun protection. Discusses the implications with regard to the design rules relevant to seat belts.
Preece (2002)	Conference paper	Public	Examination of NSW crash data, interviews with truck drivers, and an observational survey of HV occupants’ seat belt use.	Results provide overwhelming support for the safety benefits of seat belts for truck occupants. Also highlights the need to increase wearing rates.

Table 4.8
Vehicle safety technologies and on-board monitoring for heavy vehicles

Authors	Type	Availability	Research	Findings
Rakja, Fitch, Arafeh, Blanco, & Hanowski (2010)	Journal article	Public	A study to estimate the safety benefits of deploying forward collision warning systems across the national fleet of heavy vehicles. Involved the use of simulation models.	Estimated a potential 21% reduction in heavy vehicle rear end crashes, which equates to 4,800 fewer crashes on US highways per year.
Lee, Kourtellis, Lin, & Hsu (2010)	Journal article	Public	A study to evaluate the effectiveness of rear view video systems (RVS) for reducing reversing manoeuvre crashes of trucks.	Use of the RVS increased stop rates by 46.7% in straight line reversing manoeuvres, with increases of 4.4% for offset right and 17.8% for dock reversing manoeuvres. Drivers generally showed positive attitudes towards using an RVS with 90% agreeing that the RVS could reduce the rear blind spot for large trucks.
Davis, Karl, Cai, Bunker, Germanchev, Eady, & Blanksby (2010)	Journal article	Public	Reports on the accuracy, robustness, and tamper evidence of on-board mass measurement systems for heavy vehicles.	All systems tested showed accuracies within ±500 kg of gross combination mass, or ±2% of the attendant weighbridge reading. Analysis of dynamic data raised the possibility of using such dynamic information in tamper evidence, particularly in the identification of potential tampering or incorrect operating procedures.
Koniditsiotis (2000)	Report	Public	A report documenting the status of WIM technology in Australia.	There are 18 WIM type systems used or available in Australia. 3 broad applications of WIM technology were identified: infrastructure design and management, freight/trade planning and management, and detection and enforcement. Site selection and location characteristics are fundamental to the performance of WIM systems. WIM system users recognise the need to quantify the characteristics of WIM locations. There is a general dissatisfaction amongst WIM users with regard to the lack of uniformity in the procedures and frequency of WIM system calibrations. There is no standard Australian specification or method to evaluate WIM systems. WIM data should be made available in a form that is accessible to all users. A number of recommendations with regard to WIM hardware, usage, data, and application are provided.
Karl, Yu, & Luk (2007)	Austroads report	Public	A literature review undertaken to identify potential intelligent transport systems (ITS) technologies to reduce undesirable interaction between freight vehicles and other traffic using metropolitan networks.	The ITS technologies that appear to be most beneficial for road users include: improved timing and coordination of signal operations for freight vehicles, driver information systems, variable message signs, variable speed limit signs, heavy vehicle speed awareness systems, and access management and electronic tolling for privately funded roads.
Regan, Young, & Haworth (2003)	Report	Public	A literature review of ISA for both heavy and light vehicles.	Speed alerting and speed limiting ISAs have demonstrated benefits in the reduction of average mean speeds, speed variance, and speed violations. Improvements in interactions with other road users has also been observed. The greatest benefits of ISA is a reduction in fuel consumption followed by reductions in crashes. GPS based ISA systems appear to be the most flexible with the ability to vary the speeds of different vehicles using the same roads (e.g., cars and trucks).
Taranto, Young, & Logan (2011)	Report	Public	Attempts to estimate the potential reductions in serious casualties in Australia with the wide-spread adoption of DSRC crash-avoidance technologies.	The majority of serious casualties will be prevented by addressing adjacent, and opposite and same direction crashes. Estimates based on DSRC-based crash avoidance technologies providing warnings only (i.e., no physical interventions) of well-implemented DSRC technologies across the entire vehicle fleet indicate that total serious casualties could be reduced in the order of 25-35%.
Latto & Baas (2004)	Report	Public	An extensive literature review to identify new technologies affecting heavy vehicles.	Manufacturers of heavy vehicles are increasingly fitting enhanced safety features that afford drivers and other road users a greater degree of safety. Technologies fitted to vehicles were categorised under the following groups: braking, tyres and suspension, steering, vision, fuel efficiency, crash avoidance, vehicle monitoring, and crash mitigation. The introduction of new technologies and the associated benefits are strongly influenced by the rules governing heavy vehicle design and operation, and the public’s perceptions of these technologies. The technologies are also linked with various compliance and enforcement strategies that may be pursued in the future. New technologies have the potential to improve vehicle safety and improve the efficiency of inspection and enforcement procedures, and a more efficient transport system.
Khemoudj, Imine, Djamai, & Jacob (2010)	Conference paper	Public	Proposes the use of smart systems to measure the impact of heavy vehicles on pavements and develop active control strategies to reduce dynamic effects.	A continuous on-board wheel load monitoring system could be a beneficial addition to anti-rollover and stability systems. One proposed method is to apply existing control techniques to on-board WIM technologies.
Coleman (2010)	Conference paper	Public	Assesses the relevance of Australian PBS in light of emerging active safety technologies.	Reviews various available technologies, how these affect on-road PBS performance, and outlines the tensions between delivering safety and productivity. Also evaluates alternative regulatory mechanisms. Proposes alternative tests to supplement PBS with the potential to improve safety and productivity.
Woodrooffe, Blower, Gordon, Green, Liu, & Sweatman (2009)	NHTSA report	Public	An examination of the performance of ESC and RSC systems for heavy truck tractor-semitrailers.	Crash scenarios from national crash databases (US) were selected and the probable effectiveness of ESC and RSC technologies were estimated. The potential safety benefits of these technologies were estimated based on simulations, field experience, and expert panel assessments.
Freund & Kreeb (2005)	Conference paper	Public	Discusses the safety benefits of technology for diagnostic and performance enhancement purposes with regard to tyres and brakes.	Results of research have the potential to improve commercial vehicle brake and tyre safety and reduce crashes related to failures in these components. This research could also improve productivity by reducing maintenance and life-cycle operational costs.
Vahidi, Stefanopoulou, Wang, & Tsao (2004)	Report	Public	Describes the experimental verification of compression braking control for heavy vehicles.	Simulations suggest the power-width-modulation actuation strategy will have the same speed regulation performance as the direct torque split strategy and significantly reduce the use of service brakes.
VanderWerf, Shladover, & Miller (2004)	Report	Public	A report that outlines the issues involved with time-staging the deployment of advanced vehicle control and safety systems (AVCSS) in light of a shift toward future automated highway systems.	In terms of the time-staging aspects of AVCSS deployment, heavy vehicle opportunities are likely to develop earliest, however the largest potential benefits are most likely with the application of these technologies to the much larger population of passenger vehicles.
Koleszar, Trencseni, & Palkovics (2004)	Conference paper	Public	Introduces the joint application of ESP and steer-by-wire systems in order to increase vehicle stability under different driving conditions.	Steer-by-wire (electrohydraulic steering) will provide an opportunity for other systems (e.g., ESP) to intervene into the vehicles directions control. Combining ESP with steering intervention will improve the functionality of ESP and its capability for stabilising the dynamic behaviour of vehicles.
Espie, Rajaonah, Auberlet, & Vienne (2004)	Conference paper	Public	An investigation of drivers’ trust when using adaptive cruise control (ACC) using a driving simulator and questionnaires.	Reclaiming control with ACC is an important problem. The main issue for driver’s trust in ACC is the interaction between the driver and the device.
Truett, Hwang, Chin, & Stevens (2002)	Conference paper	Public	Discusses the collection and analysis of truck rollover data. Also entails an evaluation of the reliability and accuracy of equipment used to take such measurements. Data was collected using vehicles in service with instrumentation on both the tractor and trailer.	Lateral acceleration and weight transfer can be related to road speed and location. GPS data is sufficient to determine a vehicles proximity to a curve. Used in conjunction this data can be used to determine highway locations where vehicles are routinely exposed to forces that overturn them. Demonstrates the potential of a device for providing drivers with a warning of a potential rollover in advance.
Rakheja, Romero, Lozano, Liu, & Ahmed (2002)	Journal article	Public	Describes the development of a three dimensional vehicle model to investigate the effectiveness of an open-loop roll instability control.	Rollover indicators and roll safety factors are investigated for their effectiveness in various cornering and evasive manoeuvres, road conditions, braking efforts, and driver reaction delays.
Charles (2001)	Article	Public	Describes the use of innovative ITS in freight transport in Australia, including cost efficiency and government benefits.	Outlines various ITS developments with regard to freight transport. Includes intelligent vehicles (with enhanced safety features such as collision avoidance and fatigue monitoring), e-commerce (measures to improve route guidance and vehicle loading, and provide electronic data exchange), and automated regulation (e.g., Safe-T-Cam and over-mass container systems).
Stevens, (2000)	Report	Public	Describes a test and evaluation of a truck rollover warning system.	The system included on-board instrumentation to continuously measure the stability of the trailer and determine the location and probable short-term path of the vehicle. Roadside beacons at selected curves broadcast characteristics of the curves to the vehicle. An on-board computer receives the data and estimates rollover risk based on roll stability, speed, and acceleration. If the estimated risk exceeds a specified threshold visible and audible warnings alert the driver in time to make corrective measures.
Sampson, Jeppesen, & Cebon (2000)	Conference paper	Public	Describes the development of an active roll control system for a tractor semi-trailer.	Simulations of the yaw-roll response indicate that the system will provide significant improvements in the rollover stability of heavy vehicles.
Allen (2010)	NHTSA technical report	Public	An evaluation of the effectiveness of ABS for heavy vehicles.	The best estimate of a reduction in all levels of police-reported crashes for air-braked tractor trailers for a tractor unit fitted with ABS is 3%. In fatal crashes there is a non-significant 2% reduction in crash involvement. Among the types of crashes ABS has the potential to influence: large reductions in jack-knives, off-road overturns, and at-fault crashes with other vehicles (except front-to-rear crashes) were observed. Increases in the number of involvements of hitting animals, pedestrians, or bicycles, and rear-ending lead vehicles (for fatal crashes only) were also observed.
Billing, Lam, & Vespa (1995)	Journal article	Public	An in-service evaluation of ABS fitted to all axles of b-train double tanker vehicles.	Tests demonstrated that ABS substantially improved the braking efficiency of combination vehicles under a wide variation of road surface and payload conditions. Also shows the benefit of using ABS on all axles.
Brown, Schwarz, Moeckli, & Marshall (2009)	NHTSA technical report	Public	Research to assess the effectiveness of tractor ESC on heavy trucks in terms of reducing the incidences of rollovers and jack-knives. The experiment used a driving simulator.	Benefits were found for both RSC and RSC+YSC systems to help drivers maintain control under differing conditions. The performance of RSC & YSC were dependent on the driver’s speed. RSC demonstrated reductions in geometry based situations including tight curves and exit ramps. Drivers with RSC+YSC were 6 times more likely to avoid a jack-knife than drivers without any stability control system under similar driving conditions.
Mazzae & Garrott (2007)	NHTSA technical report	Public	Evaluation of commercially available rear object detection systems intended for use on medium straight trucks.	The performance of sensor-based systems was inadequate for the detection of people, particularly young children. Rearview video systems provide an effective means of seeing behind the vehicle. Rear cross-view mirrors are not an effective means of seeing behind a vehicle mostly due to poor/inconsistent image quality.
Sayer, Bogard, Funkhouser, Le Blanc, Bao, Blankespoor, Buonarosa, & Winkler (2010)	NHTSA technical report	Public	Findings from an operational field test of heavy trucks fitted with a warning system integrating FCW, LCM, and LDW warning functions were presented. The system was fitted to 10 heavy trucks for 10 months; vehicles were instrumented to measure driving behaviour and system performance. Surveys and debriefings were used to ascertain driver attitudes towards the system.	The integrated warning system offers benefits with regard to improved driver performance. The majority of drivers accepted the system and reported other subjective benefits of the system. The majority of drivers also indicated they would recommend that their companies consider purchasing vehicles with the integrated system installed. No negative behavioural adaptation effects were observed from the drivers’ 10 month usage of the integrated system.
Koniditsiotis & Girgis (2010)	Conference paper	Public	Reports on the progress of the IAP which is used for monitoring heavy vehicles in Australia.	Outlines a number of benefits to transport operators. Describes the potential of future applications based on the IAP platform. Describes the benefits of IAP as a compliance tool.
Cai, Davis, & Karl (2009)	Conference paper	Public	Reports on the development and pilot testing of an OBM application for heavy vehicles.	Results of the pilot testing revealed non-linearity found in the range of ± 0.79% for trailer axle groups & ±1.3% for prime mover axle groups. Inaccuracy was found in the range of ±0.6% for trailer axle groups & ±1.15% for prime mover axle groups. Tamper testing was also undertaken. The capability of using dynamic data to determine the road friendliness of suspensions was also proven.
Blanksby, Talko, Patrick, Perovic, & Hore-Lacy (2008)	Conference paper	Public	Describes the suitability and cost-effectiveness of 14 technology options available for trailer monitoring as part of the IAP. A primary consideration was the inter-compatibility between technologies and IAP compliant prime movers and IAP compliant trailers.	Analysis of cost-effectiveness indicated that a stand-alone system allowing service providers to send trailer information to a centralised hub from which prime mover service providers collected the data and provided IAP reports on the whole vehicle was the most cost-effective option.
Bruzsa, Sack, & Shepherd (2006)	Conference paper	Public	Describes the trial of quad-axle semitrailer combinations that meet PBS requirements and are fitted with an OBM and GPS.	The results of this trial clearly illustrate the benefits of both IAP and PBS
D’Souza, Johnstone, & Koniditsiotis (2005)	Conference paper	Public	Uses the New South Wales mobile crane concessional benefit scheme (MCCBS) as a practical example of a successfully implemented IAP scheme.	The key features and lessons learned from the MCCBS demonstrate the practical applications for IAP and demonstrate how the benefits associated with IAP can be maximised in the future.
Koniditsiotis (2003)	Austroads report	Public	Outlines the findings on an investigation into the feasibility of the IAP, particularly identifying the applications to which IAP can be applied.	IAP can provide significant benefits to jurisdictions across all areas of activity including: improved road safety, reductions in infrastructure wear, reduction in environmental effects, management of public perceptions of heavy vehicle use, optimisation of road freight policy and operations tasks, and optimisation of on-road enforcement activities. The transport industry would also benefit from IAP in terms of improved productivity.
Hickman & Hanowski (2010)	FMCSA report	Public	Evaluation of a commercially available low-cost behaviour management system for drivers. Two different truck companies were involved in the evaluation.	Both companies significantly reduced driver involvement in safety-related events by 38% and 52%. The combination of on-board monitoring with behavioural coaching were responsible for the observed reductions in safety-related events.
Ball, Versluis, Hendrickson, Pittenger, Frank, Stewart, & Murray (2005)	FMCSA report	Public	Describes the factors that influence trucking companies’ decisions to develop, purchase, and use on-board safety technologies.	The factors identified include: return on investment for the purchaser, the demonstrated effectiveness to improve safety, the reliability and maintainability of the technology, any liabilities that might arise due to data used or stored by the technology, market demand (for manufacturing), initial cost, investment necessary for the research and development of new technology, market image, driver acceptance, and in-cab technology interface and the manner this is integrated into the vehicle.
Misener, Nowakowski, Lu, Koo, Marguluci, Spring, et al. (2007)	FMCSA report	Public	Describes a suite of hardware and software to monitor driving behaviour and provide feedback on unsafe driving behaviours to the driver.	The system measures: speed, following distance, lane-keeping, seat belt use, and the use of turn signals.

Table 4.9
Heavy vehicle and other transport interaction

Authors	Type	Availability	Research	Findings
Delaney, Newstead, & Watson (2007)	MUARC report	Public	An examination of the effect of growth in heavy vehicle traffic on road trauma in the light passenger vehicle fleet. Predictions are modelled using exposure data from BITRE, the ABS, and NSW Police crash data.	The sensitivity of heavy vehicle related road trauma to crash risk is demonstrated. The importance of reducing heavy vehicle crash rates is highlighted with regard to reducing heavy vehicle related road trauma and to offset the projected growth of heavy vehicle travel.
Seyer & Jonas (2002)	Conference paper	Public	Discusses the possible integration of underrun protection and integrated lap/sash seat belts in heavy vehicles.	Any measures, such as underrun protection, that exploit the crashworthiness of modern passenger vehicles are worth consideration. Fully integrated lap/sash seat belts may be a possible strategy to encourage heavy vehicle occupants to wear seat belts.
Hanowski, Olson, Hickman, & Dingus (2006)	Conference paper	Public	Analysis of 246 heavy vehicle (HV) interactions with light vehicles (LV) collected in a naturalistic driving study via video cameras and other data collection devices fitted to light vehicles.	Excluding crashes where fault could not be determined LV drivers were at fault for 64% of identified incidents and HV drivers for 36%. When LV driver was at fault the most common incidents were: Late braking for stopped or stopping traffic, lane change without sufficient gap, and aborted lane change manoeuvres. When HV driver was at fault the most common incidents were: Lane change without sufficient gap, lateral deviation of through vehicle, and left turn (US) without clearance.
Hanowski, Hickman, Wierwille, & Keisler (2007)	Journal article	Public	Reports the joint findings of 2 naturalistic studies of HV-LV interaction. Video and other sources were used for data collection yielding 210 LV-HV critical incidents (crashes, near-crashes, and crash-relevant conflicts) for analysis.	78% of critical incidents were initiated by LV drivers and the remaining 22% by HV drivers. Aggressive driving on the part of the LV driver was determined to be the primary contributory factor for LV-initiated incidents. For HV-initiated incidents the primary contributory factor was determined to be poor driving techniques. Future efforts to address HV-LV interactions should include a focus on aggressive LV drivers, while HV drivers may benefit from improved training that includes defensive driving skills.
Evans & Frick (1993)	Journal article	Public	Examination of the risk of fatality due to differences in the mass of vehicles involved in a crash.	If a driver transfers to a car lighter by 1% that driver’s risk of fatality in a 2-car crash is between 2.7% and 4.3% larger than that of the other involved driver. Two “laws” of mass ratio also apply across a wide spectrum of vehicles including trucks: Lghter vehicles present less risk to other road users The heavier the vehicle the less risk to its occupants.
Gao, Liu, Kong, & Guo (2004)	Conference paper	Public	Examines the influence of heavy vehicles on freeway safety in China.	The main causes of crashes are driving performance, loss for overloading, and significant speed variation between different vehicle types.

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